In the Earliest Cities

Introduction

About 5,000 years ago, the first cities of the Indian subcontinent emerged along the banks of the Indus River and its tributaries. This was the Harappan Civilisation, also called the Indus Valley Civilisation. It was one of the four great ancient civilisations of the world, along with Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.

The Harappan Civilisation is famous for its advanced city planning, impressive buildings, and efficient drainage systems. In many ways, these early cities were as well-planned as modern cities!

Discovery of the Harappan Civilisation

The civilisation was discovered when archaeologists dug at two sites in the 1920s:

• Harappa (in present-day Punjab, Pakistan) — discovered in 1921
• Mohenjo-daro (in present-day Sindh, Pakistan) — discovered in 1922

Dayaram Sahni and Rakhaldas Banerjee were the archaeologists who made these discoveries. The civilisation is named 'Harappan' after the first site discovered.

Extent and Period

The Harappan Civilisation was the largest of the four ancient civilisations in terms of area:

Important Sites

The Harappan Civilisation was much larger than either the Egyptian or Mesopotamian civilisations. It covered an area larger than present-day Pakistan and India combined!

Town Planning

The Harappan cities are admired for their excellent planning:

City Layout

Most cities had two parts:

1. The Citadel — The higher, western part. This was built on a raised platform. Important buildings like the Great Bath, granaries, and assembly halls were located here. The citadel was probably used for administrative and religious purposes.
2. The Lower Town — The eastern part where ordinary people lived. This was also walled.

Streets and Roads

• Streets were laid out in a grid pattern — they cut each other at right angles.
• Main streets were wide (up to 10 metres).
• Lanes and by-lanes branched off the main streets.
• Streets were straight and well-planned.
• Street corners were rounded to allow easy turning of carts.

Houses

• Houses were made of baked bricks (not sun-dried bricks used in Mesopotamia).
• Bricks had a standard size ratio: length : breadth : thickness = 4 : 2 : 1.
• Houses varied in size — some were single-roomed, others had many rooms and even two storeys.
• Every house had a courtyard (open area in the centre).
• Houses had wells for water supply.
• Bathrooms were built with careful drainage.

The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro)

The Great Bath is the most famous structure of the Harappan Civilisation:

• Size: 11.88 metres × 7.01 metres × 2.43 metres deep
• Construction: Made of baked bricks with a layer of natural tar (bitumen) for waterproofing
• Steps: Two sets of steps led into the bath from the north and south
• Water: Filled with water from a large well
• Drain: Water could be drained through a large outlet
• Purpose: Probably used for religious/ritual bathing

The Great Bath shows the Harappans' mastery over engineering and water management.

Drainage System

The drainage system of Harappan cities was remarkable:

• Every house had a bathroom with a drain that connected to street drains.
• Street drains were covered with bricks or stone slabs.
• Drains had manholes for periodic cleaning.
• Drains were sloped to allow water to flow.
• Wastewater from houses flowed into larger drains and then out of the city.

'No other ancient civilisation, not even the Romans, had such an advanced drainage system as the Harappans.'

Life in Harappan Cities

Food

• Grains: Wheat, barley, rice (in some areas), pulses (lentils, peas), millets
• Fruits and vegetables: Dates, melons, pomegranates
• Meat: Fish, mutton, pork, chicken, cattle meat
• Milk products: Milk, curd, butter
• The staple food was wheat and barley.

Clothes

• Cotton and wool were used for clothing.
• Both men and women wore two pieces of cloth (like a dhoti and shawl).
• Men and women wore ornaments (necklaces, bangles, earrings, rings).
• Both men and women combed their hair in different styles.
• Men kept beards, and some shaved.

Seals

Seals are among the most important finds from Harappan sites:

• Made of steatite (a soft stone)
• Usually square or rectangular, about 2-3 cm in size
• Had animal motifs: unicorn, bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, goat
• Had a short inscription in the Harappan script (not yet deciphered)
• Used for: marking ownership, trade, and possibly religious purposes

The Harappan script has about 400-600 symbols and is mostly written from right to left. Despite many attempts, it has not been deciphered yet.

Crafts

Harappan craftspeople made:

• Pottery — Red and black pottery with painted designs
• Beads — Made from carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite
• Metalwork — Copper and bronze tools, weapons, and statues (Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro)
• Seals — Steatite seals with animal motifs
• Terracotta — Clay figurines of animals, toys, and Mother Goddess figurines
• Shell and ivory — Ornaments and inlay work

The Dancing Girl is a bronze statue found at Mohenjo-daro. It is about 10.5 cm tall and shows a young girl in a confident pose. This statue is one of the finest examples of Harappan art.

Trade and Contacts

The Harappans had extensive trade networks:

• Internal trade: Between cities within the civilisation
• External trade: With Mesopotamia (Iraq), Oman, Bahrain, and Afghanistan
• Trade goods: Cotton textiles, beads, timber, ivory, spices (exported); gold, silver, copper, tin, precious stones (imported)
• Lothal dockyard: A dock was built at Lothal for sea trade. It is the earliest dockyard in the world.
• Transport: Bullock carts, boats, and ships

Religion of the Harappans

While we cannot be sure about Harappan religion, we have some evidence:

• Mother Goddess figurines: Many terracotta figurines of a female deity have been found.
• Pashupati seal: A seal showing a figure seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals. Some scholars identify this as 'Proto-Shiva'.
• Worship of trees and animals: Certain trees (pipal) and animals (bull, unicorn) seem to have been considered sacred.
• Fire altars: Found at Kalibangan and Lothal, suggesting fire worship.

Decline of the Harappan Civilisation

Around 1900 BCE, the Harappan civilisation began to decline. The cities were gradually abandoned. Possible reasons:

The decline was gradual, not sudden. The cities were not destroyed but slowly abandoned as people moved to smaller settlements.

AP Context: Harappan Influence in Andhra Pradesh

While most Harappan sites are in the northwest, there is evidence of trade and cultural contact with the Deccan and South India:

• Carnelian beads from Gujarat (Harappan region) have been found in Andhra Pradesh.
• The Harappan trade network likely extended along the west coast down to present-day Kerala.
• Some copper objects found in Andhra show similarities with Harappan metalwork.

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Calling it only 'Indus Valley' when it extended beyond the Indus region.
• Thinking all Harappan cities were identical — each had unique features.
• Believing the script has been deciphered — it has not!.
• Confusing the Dancing Girl (bronze, Mohenjo-daro) with other statues.
• Thinking the decline was sudden — it was gradual over centuries.

Quick Self-Test

1. Where is Mohenjo-daro located?
2. What is the Great Bath and why is it important?
3. Describe the drainage system of Harappan cities.
4. What materials were used to make Harappan seals?
5. What was the most important craft at Lothal?
6. Name two Harappan sites in India.
7. What evidence of trade with Mesopotamia has been found?
8. Why did the Harappan civilisation decline?
9. What is special about Harappan bricks?
10. Name the statue found at Mohenjo-daro that shows Harappan artistic skill.

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Describe the town planning of Harappan cities.
• What do we know about the life of people in the Harappan Civilisation?
• Explain the possible reasons for the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.