From Hunting–Gathering to Growing Food

Introduction

Imagine a world without supermarkets, farms, or even a single grain of wheat grown by human hands. This was the world of the earliest humans. For most of human history, people were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place in search of food. Then, about 10,000 years ago, a great change happened — humans began to grow food and domesticate animals. This change is called the Neolithic Revolution or the Agricultural Revolution.

The Three Stone Ages

The Stone Age is divided into three periods based on the type of stone tools used:

Note: The dates are approximate and vary by region. In some parts of the world, the Neolithic started earlier or later.

Life as a Hunter-Gatherer

Hunter-gatherers were people who obtained all their food by hunting animals and collecting wild plants. They did not grow crops or keep domestic animals (except the dog, which was tamed very early).

How They Lived

• Food: Hunted wild animals (deer, wild cattle, goats, birds, fish) and gathered wild fruits, berries, nuts, roots, seeds, and eggs.
• Shelter: Lived in caves, rock shelters, and simple huts made of branches and leaves.
• Clothing: Made clothes from animal skins and bark.
• Tools: Made tools from stone, bone, and wood. Tools included handaxes, choppers, cleavers, scrapers, and spears.
• Fire: Fire was a crucial discovery. It provided warmth, protection from wild animals, and a way to cook food.
• Social life: Lived in small groups or bands of 20-30 people. There was probably a division of labour — men hunted, women gathered and looked after children.

Why Did They Move?

Hunter-gatherers were nomadic — they moved from place to place. They moved because:

1. Animals they hunted moved to different areas
2. Plants became available in different seasons
3. Water sources dried up in some seasons
4. They needed to follow rivers and streams

Palaeolithic Sites in India

Important Palaeolithic sites include:

• Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) — Famous for rock paintings
• Hunsgi (Karnataka)
• Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh) — Very important for our state!
• Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu)

AP Connection: The Kurnool Caves are in Andhra Pradesh. Archaeologists have found Palaeolithic tools and animal bones here. This shows that early humans lived in this region tens of thousands of years ago.

The Beginning of Change: Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic period was a time of transition. The climate became warmer, and new plants and animals appeared.

Key developments:

• Microliths — Very small stone tools, often less than 1 cm long. They were used as arrowheads, spear points, and for making composite tools (tools made of several materials).
• Fishing — People began to fish more regularly.
• First domestication — The dog was probably tamed during this period.
• Rock paintings — Beautiful paintings of animals and hunting scenes were made on cave walls.

Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh has over 500 rock shelters with paintings. These paintings show animals, hunting scenes, and later, dancing figures.

The Neolithic Revolution: A Great Change

About 10,000 years ago, something remarkable happened. In several parts of the world, people began to grow plants and tame animals. This is called the Neolithic Revolution because it was as important as a revolution.

Why Farming?

Several theories explain why people started farming:

1. Climate change — After the Ice Age, the climate became warmer. Wild grasses like wheat and barley grew more abundantly.
2. Population increase — More people needed more food.
3. Observation — People noticed that seeds dropped on the ground grew into new plants.
4. Food security — Farming provided a more reliable food supply than hunting and gathering.

Domestication of Plants

• The first crops grown were wheat and barley in West Asia.
• In China, people grew millet and rice.
• In Africa, people grew sorghum and millets.
• In India, evidence of rice cultivation has been found at sites like Lahuradewa (Uttar Pradesh) and Mehrgarh.

Domestication of Animals

• The first animal to be tamed was the dog (for hunting and guarding).
• Later, people tamed sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs.
• Animals provided meat, milk, wool, hides, and helped in farming (ploughing).

Early Farming Settlements

Mehrgarh (Pakistan)

Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent:

• Location: In Balochistan, Pakistan (near the Bolan Pass)
• Period: 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE
• Key findings:
  • Early farmers grew wheat and barley
  • Domesticated sheep, goats, and cattle
  • Lived in mud-brick houses
  • Made tools from stone and bone
  • Made baskets coated with clay
  • Cotton was grown — one of the earliest evidence of cotton cultivation
  • Burial sites with grave goods (ornaments, tools, animal bones)

Mehrgarh shows a clear transition from hunting-gathering to settled farming life.

Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir)

• Location: Near Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir
• Period: 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE
• Key features:
  • People lived in pit-houses — holes dug into the ground with roofs made of branches and grass (good for cold climate)
  • Buried dogs and other animals with humans in graves (showing close bond with animals)
  • Hunting tools found (hunting remained important)
  • Polished stone tools and bone tools found

Pit-houses are found at Burzahom and also at other sites in cold regions. The pits were about 1-2 metres deep and provided insulation against the cold.

Daojali Hading (Assam)

• Location: Dima Hasao district, Assam
• Period: Neolithic period
• Key features:
  • Evidence of shifting agriculture (slash-and-burn farming)
  • Tools made from fossil wood (wood turned to stone over time)
  • Stone tools with shouldered axes and grinding stones
  • Evidence of rice cultivation (eastern India is a centre of rice domestication)

Changes That Farming Brought

Farming changed human life in many ways:

Invention of Pottery

Pottery was invented during the Neolithic period. Pottery was needed for:

• Storing grains and food
• Cooking food
• Carrying water
• Making plates and bowls

Pottery was made by hand or on a potter's wheel (invented later). It was fired in kilns or open fires to make it hard.

Weaving

The earliest evidence of weaving comes from Neolithic sites. People used plant fibres and animal wool to make cloth. Spindle whorls (used for spinning thread) have been found at many sites.

Neolithic Sites in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has important Neolithic sites:

• Nagulapally (Nalgonda district) — Stone tools and pottery found
• Budigere (Anantapur district) — Neolithic settlement remains
• Choudampally — Evidence of early farming
• Paidupally — Neolithic tools and burial sites

These sites show that the Neolithic way of life spread to the Deccan region, including present-day Andhra Pradesh.

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Thinking people started farming suddenly — it happened gradually over thousands of years.
• Confusing Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic tools — remember: Palaeolithic = large crude, Mesolithic = small microliths, Neolithic = polished.
• Believing all Stone Age people were the same — life changed greatly across these periods.
• Thinking only men were hunters — women also hunted small animals and gathered most of the plant food.

'Hunter-gatherers were the original affluent society. They worked fewer hours and had more leisure than modern people.' (Marshall Sahlins)

Quick Self-Test

1. What is the Neolithic Revolution?
2. How did hunter-gatherers get their food?
3. Why did hunter-gatherers move from place to place?
4. What are microliths?
5. Describe the pit-houses found at Burzahom.
6. What evidence of early farming has been found at Mehrgarh?
7. How did the invention of pottery change life?
8. Name one Neolithic site in Andhra Pradesh.
9. What animals were first domesticated?
10. Why did people start farming?

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Explain the difference between Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods.
• Describe life in a Neolithic farming settlement using Mehrgarh as an example.
• What changes did farming bring to human society?