Environment and Natural Resources — Practice

Question 1

What are global commons? Name the four global commons and explain the 'tragedy of the commons.'

Accepted Answer

GLOBAL COMMONS: Resources that are not owned by any single nation-state and belong to all of humanity — they are held in common. Because no one owns them, they are vulnerable to overuse and degradation. THE FOUR GLOBAL COMMONS: (1) THE ATMOSPHERE — shared air and climate system; absorbs greenhouse gases from all countries. (2) THE HIGH SEAS (international waters beyond 200 nautical miles) — freedom of navigation; rich fisheries. (3) ANTARCTICA — governed by the Antarctic Treaty System (1959); no territorial claims allowed. (4) OUTER SPACE — no national sovereignty; governed by the Outer Space Treaty (1967). THE TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (Garrett Hardin, 1968): When a resource is shared by all and owned by none, each individual (or country) has an incentive to use as much as possible to maximise their own gain. If everyone does this, the shared resource is OVER-EXPLOITED and eventually DESTROYED. CLIMATE CHANGE EXAMPLE: Every country's industry gains from emitting CO₂ (cheap energy, economic growth). The COST of that CO₂ — climate change — is shared by all humanity. No country has an individual incentive to reduce emissions if others don't. This is why climate action requires INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION — the tragedy of the commons cannot be solved by individual countries acting alone.

Question 2

Compare the Kyoto Protocol (1997) with the Paris Agreement (2015). Why is the Paris Agreement considered an improvement?

Accepted Answer

KYOTO PROTOCOL (1997): WHAT: First international treaty with LEGALLY BINDING emission reduction targets. Countries: Only ANNEX-I (developed countries — USA, EU, Japan, Canada, Australia, Russia). Developing countries including India, China, Brazil: COMPLETELY EXEMPT from binding targets. TARGETS: Reduce emissions to 5% below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. PROBLEMS: (1) USA never ratified Kyoto — the world's largest emitter at the time refused to be bound. (2) China and India grew rapidly through the 2000s; Kyoto's exemption covered 45% of global emissions by 2010. (3) Canada withdrew in 2011. (4) Global emissions grew ~30% between 1997 and 2012 despite Kyoto. PARIS AGREEMENT (2015): WHAT: Framework where ALL countries (196 nations) commit to reducing emissions through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). GOAL: Keep warming 'well below 2°C' and pursue efforts toward 1.5°C. NDCs: Each country sets its own targets — voluntary but submitted formally to the UN. Five-year review mechanism ('ratchet') requires countries to strengthen NDCs over time. CLIMATE FINANCE: Developed countries commit to providing $100 billion/year to developing countries. USA rejoined under Biden (2021, after Trump withdrew in 2017). WHY PARIS IS BETTER: (1) UNIVERSAL: All 196 countries including China (now world's largest emitter) and India have NDCs — no free riders. (2) FLEXIBLE: Countries set their own targets based on their circumstances. (3) DYNAMIC: Five-year review mechanism creates a mechanism for increasing ambition. (4) POLITICALLY DURABLE: Voluntary NDCs are more likely to be actually implemented than externally imposed targets. LIMITATION OF PARIS: NDCs are NOT legally binding — countries can submit weak targets and there is no enforcement mechanism. Current NDCs, if implemented, would limit warming to ~2.5–3°C — not 1.5°C. Implementation remains the challenge.

Question 3

Explain the principle of CBDR. What is the North-South debate on climate change, and what is India's position?

Accepted Answer

COMMON BUT DIFFERENTIATED RESPONSIBILITIES (CBDR): DEFINITION: The principle that ALL countries share a COMMON responsibility to protect the global environment, but this responsibility is DIFFERENTIATED based on each country's historical contribution to environmental damage and its current capacity to act. ORIGIN: Incorporated into the UNFCCC (1992) and the Rio Declaration. The principle recognises that: (a) The Industrial Revolution (1760–1900) was powered by burning fossil fuels — primarily by Europe and North America. (b) The accumulated CO₂ in the atmosphere today is primarily the result of 250 years of Western and Japanese industrialisation. (c) Developing countries are mostly recent industrialisers with much lower per capita emissions. (d) Yet developing countries — especially small island states and low-lying coastal nations — bear the most severe consequences of climate change. THE NORTH-SOUTH DEBATE: GLOBAL NORTH (USA, EU, Japan): 'Climate action must be universal and urgent. China is now the world's largest emitter (12 billion tonnes/year), India the third largest (2.9 billion tonnes). You cannot claim to be developing countries while building hundreds of coal plants. All large emitters must cut.' GLOBAL SOUTH (India, China, Brazil, Africa): 'This is a historical problem created by 250 years of Northern industrialisation. The atmosphere is already full of carbon you put there. We are still lifting hundreds of millions out of poverty — do not ask us to sacrifice development to solve a problem we didn't create. Provide CLIMATE FINANCE (the promised $100 billion/year, largely undelivered) and TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER (clean energy tech without restrictive patents).' INDIA'S SPECIFIC POSITION: India is in a unique position — large total emitter (#3 globally) but tiny per capita emitter (~2 tonnes vs USA's ~14). INDIA'S ARGUMENTS: (1) HISTORICAL RESPONSIBILITY: India has contributed only 3–4% of cumulative CO₂ since 1750. USA alone has contributed ~25%. The CBDR principle means India's obligation is proportional to its contribution. (2) DEVELOPMENTAL NEED: India is still a developing country — ~700 million people without adequate electricity, 300 million+ in moderate to extreme poverty. Economic growth requires energy. (3) PER CAPITA FAIRNESS: Any climate agreement must be based on per capita equity — one atmosphere, equal access per person. India's per capita emissions would have to be allowed to rise several times before reaching current EU levels. (4) CLIMATE FINANCE: India has repeatedly called on developed countries to honour the $100 billion/year climate finance commitment — largely undelivered. INDIA'S COMMITMENTS DESPITE CONSTRAINTS: India has made ambitious commitments in recognition of its climate vulnerability: Net Zero by 2070; 500 GW renewable capacity by 2030; 50% electricity from renewables by 2030. India's solar programme is one of the world's largest. 'India will grow — but we will grow green.' CONCLUSION: The CBDR principle is not a way for India to avoid climate action — India is acting ambitiously. It is a way to frame climate action FAIRLY — so that the burden of addressing a problem primarily caused by rich countries is not borne primarily by poor ones.

Practice — Environment and Natural Resources

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