Primary Activities (Hunting, Gathering, Pastoralism, Agriculture, Mining) — Practice

Question 1

What is shifting cultivation? By what names is it known in different parts of the world?

Accepted Answer

SHIFTING CULTIVATION (also called Primitive Subsistence Agriculture / Slash-and-Burn): A type of subsistence agriculture practised in tropical forests where: (1) A patch of forest is CLEARED by cutting and burning vegetation (slash-and-burn). (2) The cleared land is CULTIVATED for 2–3 years. (3) When soil fertility DECLINES, the plot is ABANDONED and left to forest regrowth, and the farmer moves to a new patch. (4) The abandoned plot may be returned to after 15–25 years when the forest has regenerated. CROPS: Mixed — subsistence food crops like maize, yam, cassava, rice, millet depending on region. REGIONAL NAMES: JHUM or JHUMMING: Northeast India (Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh). MILPA: Mexico and Central America. LADANG: Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, and Southeast Asia. ROCA or CONUCO: Brazil and Amazon region. CHITIMENE or TAUNGYA: Central Africa and Myanmar. SIGNIFICANCE: Practised by tribal/indigenous communities. Ecologically sound when population density is low (sufficient fallow period for forest regrowth). Becomes UNSUSTAINABLE when fallow periods are shortened due to population pressure — leading to permanent deforestation.

Question 2

Describe the main characteristics of plantation agriculture. Why did it develop in tropical regions?

Accepted Answer

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE: A form of commercial agriculture where large estates grow a SINGLE CASH CROP for export, typically using external capital and hired labour. CHARACTERISTICS: (1) LARGE LAND AREA: Plantations cover hundreds to thousands of hectares — far larger than family farms. A single rubber or tea estate may cover 2,000–5,000 hectares. (2) MONOCULTURE: Only one crop is cultivated — tea, rubber, coffee, sugarcane, cocoa, bananas, etc. This maximises efficiency in planting, harvesting, and processing but risks devastation if prices crash or disease strikes (e.g., banana Panama disease). (3) CAPITAL INTENSIVE: On-site processing facilities (tea factory, rubber-processing plant, sugar mill). Heavy machinery for irrigation, harvesting. (4) EXPORT ORIENTATION: The crop is grown not for local consumption but for export to developed country markets. (5) HIRED/BONDED LABOUR: Historically used enslaved Africans (Caribbean sugar), indentured Indian workers (Assam tea, Fiji sugarcane), or colonial forced labour. Today: paid (but often very low-wage) local labour. WHY TROPICAL REGIONS: (1) COLONIAL HISTORY: European colonists found tropical land available (through conquest, displacement of indigenous peoples) and tropical climates suitable for cash crops their home markets demanded (tea, coffee, rubber, spices — not producible in temperate Europe). (2) CROP REQUIREMENTS: Tea, rubber, coffee, cocoa, and bananas all need tropical climate (high temperatures, high rainfall, no frost). (3) LABOUR: Large indigenous or imported labour populations available at low cost in colonial tropical territories. EXAMPLES: Tea: Assam/Darjeeling (India), Sri Lanka, Kenya. Rubber: Malaysia, Indonesia. Coffee: Brazil (world's largest), Ethiopia. Cocoa: Ivory Coast, Ghana.

Question 3

What was the Green Revolution? Discuss its achievements and limitations in the context of Indian agriculture.

Accepted Answer

THE GREEN REVOLUTION: A set of agricultural innovations introduced in developing countries (India, Mexico, Philippines) in the 1960s–1970s that dramatically increased food production. CORE ELEMENTS: (1) HIGH-YIELDING VARIETY (HYV) SEEDS: New dwarf varieties of wheat (Norman Borlaug's 'Sonora 64' and related varieties, introduced to India by M.S. Swaminathan) and rice (IR-8 'Miracle Rice' from IRRI). Dwarf varieties don't fall over when they produce heavy grain heads. (2) IRRIGATION: HYV seeds require more water than traditional varieties — expansion of tubewell and canal irrigation (Punjab's canal system, groundwater extraction). (3) CHEMICAL FERTILISERS: HYV varieties respond to nitrogen fertiliser with large yield increases; traditional varieties don't. (4) PESTICIDES: To protect the uniform HYV crops from pests. ACHIEVEMENTS: (1) FOOD SECURITY: India went from food deficit (importing wheat from USA under PL480 in the 1960s) to food self-sufficiency and later food exporter. Wheat production: 11 million tonnes (1965) → 74 million tonnes (2022). (2) FAMINE PREVENTION: The 1960s famines (Bihar 1966-67) were the last major Indian famines — the Green Revolution's yield increases made famine highly unlikely. (3) POVERTY REDUCTION: Higher agricultural incomes in Punjab, Haryana, and western UP transformed these states. (4) MODEL FOR GLOBAL AGRICULTURE: India's success inspired Green Revolutions in Mexico, Philippines, Bangladesh, Indonesia. LIMITATIONS: (1) REGIONAL INEQUALITY: Green Revolution concentrated in irrigated, flat plains (Punjab, Haryana, western UP) and largely bypassed eastern India, rainfed dryland farming areas, and tribal regions. Created 'two Indias' in agriculture. (2) GROUNDWATER DEPLETION: Intensive irrigation (tubewell) drained Punjab/Haryana groundwater. Water table has fallen 0.5–1m per year in some districts — threatening the very irrigation that makes Green Revolution farming possible. (3) SOIL DEGRADATION: Heavy chemical fertiliser and pesticide use over decades has reduced soil organic matter, created saline soils, and killed soil microbiome. (4) LOSS OF CROP DIVERSITY: HYV monocultures replaced thousands of local rice and wheat varieties, reducing genetic diversity (a risk if a new disease strikes HYV crops). (5) HEALTH CONCERNS: Pesticide contamination of food and water; Punjab's 'cancer belt' has elevated cancer rates attributed partly to pesticide exposure. (6) ECONOMIC INEQUALITY WITHIN VILLAGES: Green Revolution benefited large landholders who could afford irrigation, seeds, and fertiliser more than small farmers. CURRENT CHALLENGES: Second Green Revolution focus: extending yield gains to pulses, oilseeds, and eastern India. Sustainable intensification: maintaining yields while reducing chemical inputs (natural farming, zero-budget natural farming). Climate resilience: developing drought-tolerant, flood-tolerant HYV varieties.

Practice — Primary Activities (Hunting, Gathering, Pastoralism, Agriculture, Mining)

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