Schools of Indian Philosophy — CGPSC GS Paper IV, Part 1 (Philosophy)
Weightage: Part 1 of GS Paper IV is Philosophy. Its first half names the nature and relevance of philosophy, the Vedas, the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman, the Gita, the Charvakas, Jain and Buddhist philosophy, and the Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools. This chapter covers that half. The next covers Western philosophy, Indian thinkers and reformers, and religion.
1. How Indian philosophy is organised
Indian schools are split by one question: do they accept the authority of the Vedas? The six schools that do are called astika (orthodox), and three that do not are nastika (heterodox): the Charvaka, Jain and Buddhist systems.
The word for philosophy, darshana, means "seeing". Most systems aim at liberation (moksha) from suffering, so metaphysics, logic and ethics are joined in one project.
2. The Vedic and Upanishadic base
The four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) are the oldest texts. Their early parts stress ritual, and the Upanishads, the last part, turn to inquiry into the self and reality.
Two ideas dominate the Upanishads. Brahman is the ultimate, unchanging reality behind the world. Atman is the innermost self. The great sayings, such as tat tvam asi ("you are that") and aham brahmasmi ("I am Brahman"), state that the two are one.
The Bhagavad Gita joins the paths: karma yoga (disinterested action, nishkama karma), jnana yoga (knowledge) and bhakti yoga (devotion). Its ideal is the steady-minded person, the sthitaprajna.
3. The heterodox schools
Charvaka (Lokayata). A materialist school. It accepts only perception as a valid source of knowledge, holds that the world is made of the four elements (earth, water, fire and air), and treats consciousness as a product of matter. It rejects rebirth, karma and ritual. Its texts are lost, so it is known mainly through critics.
Jainism. Its teachers are the 24 Tirthankaras, with Mahavira the last. Its core doctrines:
- Anekantavada: reality has many sides, so no single view is complete.
- Syadvada: statements are true only in some respect.
- Ahimsa is the highest duty, within five great vows (mahavratas): non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession.
- Three jewels (right faith, knowledge and conduct) lead to liberation.
Buddhism. The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths (suffering, its cause, its end and the path) and the Eightfold Path. Its central ideas are impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), no-self (anatta) and dependent origination (pratityasamutpada). Nirvana is the end of craving.
The school later split. Madhyamaka, from Nagarjuna, teaches emptiness (shunyata). Yogachara, from Vasubandhu, teaches that reality is consciousness.
4. The six darshanas
| Darshana | Founder and text | Central claim | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nyaya | Gautama; Nyaya Sutra | Right knowledge comes through four pramanas | Perception, inference, comparison, testimony; five-step inference |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada; Vaisheshika Sutra | Reality is made of categories and atoms | Atomism (paramanu); categories such as substance and quality |
| Samkhya | Kapila; Samkhya Karika | Two eternal realities: Purusha and Prakriti | Three gunas: sattva, rajas, tamas |
| Yoga | Patanjali; Yoga Sutras | Liberation through mental discipline | Eight limbs (ashtanga); accepts Ishvara |
| Purva Mimamsa | Jaimini; Mimamsa Sutra | Duty (dharma) is known through the Vedic ritual | Vedas are eternal and authorless |
| Vedanta | Badarayana; Brahma Sutras | The Upanishads reveal Brahman | Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita sub-schools |
Nyaya and Vaisheshika. These two are often paired. Nyaya gives the rules of correct reasoning, including the five-membered syllogism, and Vaisheshika gives the account of the physical world as made of atoms.
Samkhya and Yoga. Samkhya is dualist. Purusha is pure, passive consciousness, and Prakriti is the active material principle made of three gunas. Bondage arises from confusing the two, and knowledge frees the Purusha. Yoga adds the practice: the eight limbs are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi, and Yoga defines its aim as stilling the modifications of the mind.
Mimamsa. It defends the Vedas and their ritual, and holds that the Vedic injunction is the only source of knowledge of dharma.
5. Vedanta and its sub-schools
Advaita (non-dualism) of Shankara (about the eighth century) holds that only nirguna Brahman is ultimately real, and that the world of multiplicity is maya. The individual self is identical with Brahman, and ignorance (avidya) hides this.
Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja (eleventh to twelfth century) teaches "qualified non-dualism": Brahman is real with the world and souls as its attributes, and devotion to a personal God is the path.
Dvaita of Madhva (thirteenth century) teaches a real difference between God, souls and matter.
Worked example 5.1 (an 8-mark answer, ~100 words). "Distinguish Advaita from Vishishtadvaita."
Model answer. Advaita Vedanta, taught by Shankara, holds that only attributeless Brahman is ultimately real. The world of many things is maya, and the individual self is identical with Brahman. Liberation is knowledge that removes ignorance.
Vishishtadvaita, taught by Ramanuja, accepts one Brahman but with qualities: souls and the world are real parts, or attributes, of God. Liberation comes through devotion and grace.
The difference is whether the world and individual soul are ultimately real (Ramanuja) or appearance (Shankara), and whether Brahman has attributes.
Common traps CGPSC sets here
- Calling Jainism and Buddhism orthodox. Both reject the authority of the Vedas, so they are heterodox.
- Mixing up Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is consciousness, and Prakriti is matter with three gunas.
- Attributing Anekantavada to Buddhism. It is Jain.
- Calling Yoga the same as Samkhya. Yoga shares Samkhya's metaphysics but adds practice and Ishvara.
- Making Charvaka a Vedic school. It is materialist and rejects the Vedas.
Memory aids
- "Charvaka, Jain, Buddha: no Vedas": the three nastika systems.
- "Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta": the six darshanas in order.
- "Shankara one, Ramanuja qualified, Madhva two": Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita.
Summary
Indian philosophy divides into orthodox schools that accept the Vedas and heterodox schools that do not. The Upanishads centre on Brahman and Atman, and the Gita joins action, knowledge and devotion.
The Charvaka is materialist, Jainism teaches many-sidedness and non-violence, and Buddhism teaches the Four Noble Truths and no-self. The six darshanas cover logic (Nyaya), atomism (Vaisheshika), dualism (Samkhya), discipline (Yoga), ritual (Mimamsa) and the Upanishads (Vedanta).
Exam protocol
- Give every school as founder, text, central claim and one distinguishing concept.
- Separate orthodox from heterodox at the start.
- Use a comparison table for sub-schools of Vedanta.
