Working of Institutions — Class 9 (CBSE)
Democracy doesn't run itself. It needs INSTITUTIONS — Parliament, the Prime Minister and Cabinet, the President, the Supreme Court. Each has a specific role. Each is constrained by the others. Each must work properly for democracy to function. This chapter is about HOW Indian democracy actually works, day by day, year by year.
1. The story — why institutions matter
The Constitution gives India a democratic FRAMEWORK. But that framework only works if institutions function properly.
A constitution can be perfect on paper but useless in practice. North Korea's Constitution claims to guarantee rights — but its institutions deny those rights every day. The strength of democracy isn't the document — it's the daily work of independent, well-functioning institutions.
This chapter examines India's most important institutions:
- Parliament (legislative power).
- Prime Minister and Cabinet (executive power).
- President (head of state).
- Supreme Court (judicial power).
Understanding these is understanding how Indian government actually works.
2. Three branches of government
Modern democracies are built on separation of powers — government's powers are divided between three branches:
Legislative
Makes laws. In India: PARLIAMENT (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha at central level; State Legislative Assemblies at state level).
Executive
Implements laws, runs government. In India: PRESIDENT, PRIME MINISTER, CABINET, civil service.
Judicial
Interprets laws, resolves disputes. In India: SUPREME COURT, High Courts, lower courts.
Why three separate branches?
If ONE PERSON or ONE BRANCH has all power, they become a dictator. By dividing power, each branch:
- Limits the others.
- Provides checks and balances.
- Prevents tyranny.
This is the principle of separation of powers — first articulated by Montesquieu (French philosopher, 1700s).
3. Parliament — the legislature
The Indian Parliament is BICAMERAL — has two houses.
Lok Sabha (House of the People)
- Lower house.
- 543 members (elected).
- Term: 5 years.
- Elected directly by voters (FPTP).
- Speaker presides over sessions.
- Most powerful house — central to government formation.
Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
- Upper house.
- 245 members (233 elected + 12 nominated).
- Term: continuous; 1/3 of members retire every 2 years.
- Members serve 6 years.
- Elected indirectly by state Legislative Assemblies.
- Vice President is the Chairman.
Comparison with US Congress
The Indian Parliament is modeled on the British Parliament, with the Lok Sabha similar to the House of Commons and the Rajya Sabha similar to the House of Lords (in form, though not in succession).
Functions of Parliament
- Legislative — makes and amends laws.
- Executive control — questions the government, holds it accountable.
- Financial control — passes the budget, controls government spending.
- Constitutional functions — proposes and approves constitutional amendments.
- Electoral — elects President (along with state assemblies), elects Vice President.
- Inquiry — investigates important matters.
How a bill becomes law
- Introduction of bill in either house.
- First reading — printed and circulated.
- Second reading — debated, voted on each clause.
- Third reading — final vote.
- Sent to other house — same process.
- Both houses agreeing, the bill goes to the President.
- President signs — bill becomes law.
- President can refuse to sign (returns it once) — Parliament can override (if both houses pass again, President must sign).
Parliamentary supremacy
In India, Parliament is SUPREME within constitutional limits:
- Can change the law on most subjects.
- Can amend the Constitution (with special procedures).
- BUT cannot violate the Constitution's basic structure.
4. Prime Minister and Cabinet — executive
Prime Minister (PM)
- HEAD OF GOVERNMENT.
- Leader of the political party (or coalition) with majority in Lok Sabha.
- Appointed by the President.
- Has REAL POWER in Indian government.
Cabinet
- Council of Ministers headed by the PM.
- Major ministers (Defence, Finance, Home, External Affairs, etc.).
- Take collective decisions.
- Collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
Powers of the PM
- Forms and dissolves the Cabinet.
- Decides policies and direction.
- Represents India abroad.
- Heads the Cabinet meetings.
- Recommends candidates for President, judges of Supreme Court.
How the PM is chosen
- After elections, the President invites the LEADER of the largest party (or coalition) in Lok Sabha to form government.
- That person becomes Prime Minister.
- PM then chooses Cabinet members.
Removal of PM
The PM remains in office as long as:
- They have majority support in Lok Sabha.
- They don't lose a vote of confidence.
- They don't resign.
PM can be removed by:
- Vote of no-confidence in Lok Sabha.
- Resignation.
- Death.
5. President — head of state
Position
- HEAD OF STATE (ceremonial role).
- DIFFERENT from Head of Government (PM).
- Indirectly elected by an electoral college (MPs + MLAs of all states + UTs).
- Term: 5 years.
Powers (constitutional and ceremonial)
- Acts as a SYMBOL of the nation.
- Receives foreign ambassadors.
- Visits other countries as head of state.
- Signs bills into law (or returns them once).
- Appoints PM (formal — the choice is dictated by Lok Sabha majority).
- Appoints judges, Election Commissioners, Attorneys-General.
- Can grant pardons (Article 72).
- Commander-in-Chief of armed forces (in name).
- Promulgates Ordinances when Parliament is not in session.
- Can dissolve Lok Sabha (on PM's advice).
- Declares Emergency (under Article 352).
What the President CANNOT do
- Cannot make law unilaterally.
- Cannot reverse the will of Parliament except in narrow cases.
- Cannot personally direct government policy.
Why is the President position important?
- Provides STABLE FIGURE during transitions.
- ABOVE PARTY POLITICS.
- Represents the NATION as a whole.
- Constitutionally REQUIRED for important decisions.
- A SAFETY VALVE in crises.
Famous Indian Presidents
- Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1950-62) — first President.
- Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (1962-67) — philosopher-president.
- Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (2002-07) — 'People's President.'
- Ram Nath Kovind (2017-22).
- Droupadi Murmu (2022 onwards) — first tribal President.
6. Vice President
- Elected by MPs only (different from President's election).
- Term: 5 years.
- CHAIRMAN of the Rajya Sabha.
- Becomes ACTING PRESIDENT if the President is unable to discharge functions.
- Often (but not always) becomes PRESIDENT later.
7. Supreme Court — judiciary
Position
- HIGHEST COURT in India.
- INDEPENDENT of executive and legislature.
- Located in Delhi.
Composition
- 1 Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- Up to 33 other judges.
- Currently: ~34 judges.
How judges are appointed
- Chief Justice of India and other Supreme Court judges appointed by the President.
- Through the COLLEGIUM SYSTEM — judges appointing judges (controversial).
- Independent of government.
Powers and functions
- Constitutional review: can strike down laws and government actions that violate the Constitution.
- Interpretation of laws: defines what laws mean.
- Original jurisdiction: handles disputes between states or between centre and states.
- Appellate jurisdiction: hears appeals from High Courts.
- Advisory jurisdiction: gives advice to the President on constitutional questions.
Independence
The Supreme Court is independent of the government because:
- Judges have FIXED TERMS until 65 years.
- Cannot be removed except through complex impeachment procedure.
- Salaries cannot be reduced.
- Funded from the Consolidated Fund (not government budget).
- Their decisions cannot be reversed by ordinary legislation (only constitutional amendment can).
Why this matters
The Supreme Court can:
- Strike down laws violating the Constitution.
- Protect minority rights.
- Limit government power.
- Ensure rule of law.
In a parliamentary democracy, the Supreme Court is the FINAL CHECK on government. India's Supreme Court has used these powers — sometimes courageously (Kesavananda Bharati, Maneka Gandhi, K.S. Puttaswamy), sometimes timidly (ADM Jabalpur during Emergency).
8. Checks and balances — how branches restrain each other
Parliament's checks on the Executive
- Vote of no-confidence.
- Question Hour (daily Q&A in Parliament).
- Passing or rejecting government's bills.
- Approval of the Budget.
- Investigative committees.
Executive's checks on the Legislature
- Can dissolve Lok Sabha (subject to constitutional limits).
- Can promulgate Ordinances when Parliament isn't in session.
- Government drives most legislative agenda.
Judiciary's checks on both
- Can declare laws unconstitutional (judicial review).
- Can declare executive actions illegal.
- Can issue writs to protect rights.
Legislature's checks on Judiciary
- Approves judicial appointments.
- Can impeach judges.
- Can override court decisions through constitutional amendments (within basic structure limits).
Free press and civil society
- Not formal branches but important.
- Inform public about government activities.
- Hold government accountable.
- Often the most active critic of bad government.
Example of checks in action
- Government passes Aadhaar Act (2016).
- Several aspects challenged in Supreme Court.
- 2018 ruling: Court UPHELD Aadhaar as constitutional but limited its applications.
- This is checks and balances in action — government acts, courts review.
9. Indian governance — the complete picture
A typical Indian law's journey:
- Government identifies need.
- Bureaucracy drafts proposal.
- Cabinet approves.
- PM presents to Lok Sabha.
- Bill goes through readings.
- Sent to Rajya Sabha.
- Goes back to Lok Sabha if amended.
- President signs.
- Becomes law.
- Implemented by government.
- If challenged, Supreme Court reviews.
This chain involves:
- Bureaucracy (drafting expertise).
- Cabinet (executive decision).
- Parliament (legislative consent).
- President (formal assent).
- Implementation (executive action).
- Supreme Court (constitutional review).
EACH STEP can be modified, debated, challenged. Democracy is the SUM of these processes.
10. Challenges and reforms
Strengths of Indian institutions
- Periodic free elections.
- Active Parliament with debates.
- Independent judiciary.
- Free press.
- Civil society.
Challenges
- Parliament: Many sittings disrupted; legislative productivity low.
- Cabinet: Sometimes lacks expertise; party loyalty trumps merit.
- President: Mostly ceremonial; can be sidelined.
- Supreme Court: Concerns about appointments, delays, government influence.
- Coordination: Parliament-Government conflict, federalism tensions.
Reform debates
- Direct election of President (some advocate).
- Limit Cabinet size.
- Strengthen Parliament's role.
- Reform Collegium system for judicial appointments.
- Speed up court processes.
11. Closing thought
Democracy is NOT just elections. It's the daily, constant, often dull WORK of institutions. Parliament passing laws (and sometimes failing to). The PM and Cabinet running the country. The President performing ceremonial duties. The Supreme Court checking laws.
Each branch is constrained by the others. Each is held accountable. Each must work properly. When one breaks down, democracy weakens.
India's institutions have generally functioned well for 75+ years — though with imperfections. Recent concerns about politicisation, media freedom, judicial independence have led to some debate about whether Indian democracy is 'backsliding.' But the institutional framework remains intact and provides hope for self-correction.
As an Indian citizen, understanding HOW your government works — beyond just elections — is essential. The next chapter (Democratic Rights) will look at what citizens can demand FROM these institutions. Together, they complete the picture of Indian democracy.
