12.1 The Birth of a National Consciousness
The 1870s saw the emergence of political consciousness in India. Educated Indians began questioning British rule, demanding reforms, and asserting India's right to self-governance. Several factors contributed:
- Western education: Introduced Indians to ideas of liberty, equality, and democracy.
- Economic critique: Nationalist leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji exposed how Britain was draining India's wealth ('Drain Theory').
- Racial discrimination: Indians were treated as inferior in their own country.
- Growth of the press: Newspapers spread nationalist ideas far and wide.
'The national movement was not a single, unified struggle. It evolved through different phases, each with different strategies, leaders, and goals — from petitions to protests, from prayer to revolution.'
12.2 The Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 in Bombay (Mumbai) . The first session was attended by 72 delegates from across India. The president was Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. The founding was supported by a retired British official, A.O. Hume, who believed it would provide a 'safety valve' for Indian discontent.
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Year founded | 1885 |
| First president | W.C. Bonnerjee |
| First session location | Bombay |
| Key moderate leaders | Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee, Madan Mohan Malaviya |
Moderate Demands and Methods
| Demand | Method |
|---|---|
| Indianisation of civil services | Petitions and appeals to British Parliament |
| Reduction of military expenditure | Public meetings |
| More representation in councils | Resolutions and memorandums |
| Protection of Indian industries | Spreading awareness through the press |
AP in the Moderate Phase
The Andhra region participated actively. The first session of INC had delegates from the Madras Presidency. P. Rangaiah Naidu from Madras was among the early leaders. Later, Tanguturi Prakasam (from Ongole, AP) emerged as a prominent leader — he was a lawyer and journalist who joined the national movement.
12.3 The Extremist Phase and Swadeshi (1905-1915)
Partition of Bengal (1905)
In 1905, Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal into two provinces — East Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority) and West Bengal (Hindu-majority). The British claimed it was for administrative efficiency, but the real motive was to divide and rule — to weaken the growing nationalist sentiment.
The Swadeshi Movement
In response, Indians launched the Swadeshi Movement:
- Boycott of British goods.
- Promotion of indigenous industries (Khadi, handlooms).
- National education (setting up Indian schools and colleges).
- Use of Indian languages.
- The movement spread beyond Bengal to other parts of India.
'The Swadeshi movement was the first mass-based nationalist movement. It showed that Indians could fight back through economic means — not just petitions, but action.'
Extremist Leaders
| Leader | Role |
|---|---|
| Bal Gangadhar Tilak | 'Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it'; started Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji festivals to mobilise masses |
| Bipin Chandra Pal | Propagated Swadeshi and boycott in Bengal |
| Lala Lajpat Rai | Led the movement in Punjab; deported to Burma |
| Aurobindo Ghosh | Revolutionary turned spiritual leader |
The Surat Split (1907)
The Congress split at Surat between Moderates (led by Gokhale) and Extremists (led by Tilak) over the pace and methods of the movement. The split weakened the Congress temporarily.
12.4 The Gandhian Era (1915-1947)
Mahatma Gandhi Arrives
Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. He had already led successful satyagrahas in South Africa. In India, he transformed the national movement from an elite affair into a mass struggle involving peasants, workers, women, and ordinary people.
Early Satyagrahas
| Satyagraha | Year | Issue | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Champaran (Bihar) | 1917 | Indigo planters forced peasants to grow indigo | Gandhi's first success; planters were forced to compensate peasants |
| Kheda (Gujarat) | 1918 | Crop failure but revenue was not reduced | Revenue was suspended |
| Ahmedabad (Gujarat) | 1918 | Mill workers demanded higher wages | Workers got a 35% wage increase |
12.5 Major Movements Led by Gandhi
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Causes: Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), Rowlatt Act, Khilafat issue.
Features:
- Surrender of titles and honorary offices.
- Boycott of legislative councils, courts, and government offices.
- Boycott of foreign goods.
- Promotion of Khadi and Swadeshi.
- Hindu-Muslim unity (Khilafat alliance).
End: The movement was called off after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where a police station was set on fire and 22 policemen were killed.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
The Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930):
- Gandhi marched 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (coastal Gujarat).
- He broke the salt law by making salt from seawater — a simple act that became a powerful symbol of defiance.
- Thousands joined the march and the subsequent civil disobedience.
Features:
- Breaking of salt laws.
- Boycott of British goods and institutions.
- Refusal to pay taxes (especially in Gujarat and parts of AP).
- Massive participation of women.
'When Gandhi picked up a grain of salt at Dandi, he shook the foundations of the British Empire. The salt tax affected every Indian — rich or poor, Hindu or Muslim.'
AP Context: Civil Disobedience in Andhra
Andhra played a major role in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Tanguturi Prakasam led the movement in the Madras Presidency. He was arrested multiple times for making salt. Other AP participants included Konda Venkatappayya (Guntur), Pattabhi Sitaramayya (historian and Congress leader), and N.G. Ranga (peasant leader).
Quit India Movement (1942)
Cause: Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942); World War II context.
Call: 'Do or Die' — Gandhi demanded an end to British rule immediately.
Features:
- Mass protests, strikes, and sabotage of government property.
- Leaders were arrested immediately (Gandhi was imprisoned).
- The movement became leaderless and decentralised.
- Underground radio stations kept the spirit alive.
- Parallel governments were set up in places like Satara (Maharashtra) and Balasore (Odisha).
AP participation: Leaders like Tanguturi Prakasam and others were jailed. Students and workers actively participated across Guntur, Visakhapatnam, and other districts.
12.6 Towards Partition and Independence
Key Events (1942-1947)
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1942 | Quit India Movement; arrival of Cripps Mission |
| 1945 | End of World War II; Labour government in Britain |
| 1946 | Cabinet Mission — proposed a united India but failed |
| 1946 | Direct Action Day by Muslim League (communal riots) |
| 1947 | Mountbatten Plan; Partition and Independence |
The Partition of India (August 1947)
India was divided into India and Pakistan. The partition was accompanied by horrific violence, mass migrations, and an estimated 1 million deaths. Nearly 15 million people were displaced.
AP impact: The Andhra region was not directly affected by Partition (no Muslim-majority districts), but the state absorbed some refugees and contributed to national reconstruction.
12.7 AP Freedom Fighters
| Name | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Tanguturi Prakasam (1872-1957) | Called 'Andhra Kesari' (Lion of Andhra); lawyer, journalist, freedom fighter; premier of Madras Presidency (1946); first Chief Minister of Andhra State (1953) |
| Alluri Sitarama Raju (1897-1924) | Led Rampa Rebellion; tribal and anti-colonial fighter |
| Potti Sriramulu (1901-1952) | Fasted unto death for a separate Andhra state; his sacrifice led to the formation of Andhra State (1953) |
| Konda Venkatappayya | Moderate Congress leader from Guntur; led Salt Satyagraha in AP |
| N.G. Ranga | Peasant leader; founded the All-India Kisan Sabha |
| Pattabhi Sitaramayya | Historian; wrote the official history of the Congress; later Governor of MP |
12.8 Common Mistakes
| Mistake | Fix |
|---|---|
| Confusing the order of movements | Non-Cooperation (1920-22) → Civil Disobedience (1930-34) → Quit India (1942) |
| Thinking the Congress started as an extremist body | It started with Moderates; Extremists emerged later (1905 onwards) |
| Forgetting that Champaran was about indigo | Gandhi's first satyagraha in India was for indigo peasants, not salt |
| Neglecting AP freedom fighters in national movement answers | Always mention Prakasam, Potti Sriramulu, and Alluri in AP context |
12.9 Exam Focus (AP Board)
| Topic | Marks |
|---|---|
| Formation of INC and Moderate phase | 3-4 marks |
| Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements | 5 marks |
| Quit India Movement (1942) | 4 marks |
| AP freedom fighters (Prakasam, Potti Sriramulu, Alluri) | 5 marks |
| Partition — causes and consequences | 3 marks |
12.10 Quick Self-Test
Q1. When and where was the Indian National Congress founded? A1. December 1885, Bombay.
Q2. Who was Dadabhai Naoroji? A2. A moderate leader who propounded the 'Drain Theory' — India's wealth was being drained to Britain.
Q3. What was the Swadeshi Movement? A3. Boycott of British goods and promotion of Indian industries, started after the Partition of Bengal (1905).
Q4. Name Gandhi's first satyagraha in India and its location. A4. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) in Bihar — for indigo peasants.
Q5. What was the Dandi March (1930)? A5. Gandhi's 240-mile march to the sea to break the salt law, starting the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Q6. Who is called 'Andhra Kesari'? A6. Tanguturi Prakasam.
Q7. Why did Potti Sriramulu go on a hunger strike? A7. To demand a separate Andhra state for Telugu-speaking people.
Q8. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement called off? A8. After the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where 22 policemen were killed.
Q9. When was India's independence and Partition? A9. August 15, 1947.
Q10. Name an AP freedom fighter who was also a historian of the Congress. A10. Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
