What, Where, How and When?
Introduction to History
History is the study of the human past. It tells us how people lived, what they ate, what they wore, and how they organised their societies. By studying history, we understand where we came from and how our present world was shaped.
History is not just a list of dates and kings. It is the story of ordinary people, their struggles, their achievements, and their daily lives. Every object around us has a history — the chair you sit on, the food you eat, the language you speak. Everything has a story that goes back in time.
What is History?
'History' comes from the Greek word 'historia' which means 'inquiry' or 'knowledge gained by investigation'. A historian is someone who investigates the past by studying evidence.
History is generally divided into:
- Prehistory — the period before writing was invented
- Protohistory — the period for which we have some written records but they are not fully deciphered
- History — the period for which we have written records
For example, the Harappan Civilisation is considered protohistoric because we have found seals with writing on them, but that script has not been fully deciphered yet.
Sources of History
Historians use many types of sources to learn about the past:
Literary Sources (Written)
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Manuscripts | Handwritten books on palm leaves or bark | Vedas, Puranas |
| Inscriptions | Writing carved on hard surfaces | Ashoka's edicts on rocks and pillars |
| Coins | Metal pieces with writing and images | Punch-marked coins, Gupta coins |
| Chronicles | Accounts written by historians | Works of Kalhana (Rajatarangini) |
Manuscripts were written on palm leaves, birch bark, cloth, or paper. India has a very old tradition of manuscripts. They were preserved in monasteries, temples, and royal libraries. The weather in India made it difficult to preserve palm-leaf manuscripts because they could get damaged by moisture and insects.
Inscriptions are writings on hard surfaces like stone, metal, pottery, and wood. Inscriptions are very reliable because they are difficult to change after being carved. Ashoka's rock edicts (found in places like Girnar in Gujarat and Dhauli in Odisha) are famous inscriptions that tell us about the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Andhra Pradesh has several important inscriptions, including the Amaravati inscriptions and the Bhattiprolu inscriptions.
Archaeological Sources
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Tools and Weapons | Stone tools, copper tools, iron implements |
| Pottery | Cooking pots, storage jars, decorated bowls |
| Bones | Animal and human bones that tell us about diet and health |
| Buildings and Monuments | Houses, palaces, temples, stupas |
| Artefacts | Ornaments, toys, statues, seals |
Tools tell us about technology. Early humans used stone tools. Later they learned to use copper and then iron. The type of tools people used tells us a lot about how they lived.
Monuments are buildings made by people in the past. The Qutub Minar in Delhi, the Taj Mahal in Agra, and the Amaravati Stupa in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh are all monuments. In Andhra Pradesh, we have many historical monuments like the Chandragiri Fort, Kondapalli Fort, and the Undavalli Caves.
Where Did People Live?
Early people lived near rivers because water was available. The first cities of the world grew up on the banks of rivers:
- Indus River — Harappan Civilisation
- Tigris and Euphrates — Mesopotamian Civilisation
- Nile River — Egyptian Civilisation
- Yellow River — Chinese Civilisation
In the Indian subcontinent, the river Indus and its tributaries supported a very old civilisation. The Ganga river valley became important later. The Godavari and Krishna rivers in present-day Andhra Pradesh also supported ancient settlements and kingdoms.
Names of the Land
Our country has been known by many names over time:
- Bharat — This is a very old name mentioned in the Rigveda. It comes from the Bharata clan.
- India — This name comes from the Indus River (called Sindhu in Sanskrit). The Persians called it 'Hindu', and the Greeks called it 'Indos' or 'India'.
- Hindustan — This name was used by the Persians and later became common. It means 'land of the Indus'.
Today, the Constitution of India says: 'India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.' So both India and Bharat are official names.
'India' is derived from the river Indus, which was called 'Sindhu' in Sanskrit and 'Indos' in Greek.
Time in History: Dates and Periods
Historians use a special system of dating:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| BCE (Before Common Era) | Same as BC (Before Christ) |
| CE (Common Era) | Same as AD (Anno Domini) |
| Century | A period of 100 years |
| Millennium | A period of 1000 years |
Important point: There is no year 0. The year 1 BCE is followed by 1 CE. So if something happened in 500 BCE, it is 500 years before the beginning of the Common Era.
How to count centuries:
- The 1st century = years 1 to 100 CE
- The 2nd century = years 101 to 200 CE
- The 20th century = years 1901 to 2000 CE
- The 21st century = years 2001 to 2100 CE
Relative dating terms:
- Ancient period — early civilisations
- Medieval period — kingdoms and empires of the middle ages
- Modern period — recent centuries
Andhra Pradesh in Historical Time
Andhra Pradesh has a rich history dating back to ancient times. The region finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Aitareya Brahmana. The Satavahanas ruled this region from around 230 BCE to 220 CE. The Amaravati Stupa is one of the oldest and largest stupas in India, dating back to the 3rd century BCE.
How Historians Work
Historians do not simply memorise facts. They investigate:
- Asking questions — What happened? When? Why?
- Collecting evidence — Finding sources
- Checking authenticity — Is the source genuine and reliable?
- Cross-checking — Comparing different sources
- Interpreting — Making sense of the evidence
- Writing — Presenting their conclusions
Archaeologists dig up the earth to find remains of the past. This is called excavation. They carefully dig layer by layer to find artefacts, tools, bones, and building remains. Each layer tells us about a different time period.
Common Mistakes Students Make
- Thinking that history is only about kings and battles — history includes all aspects of life.
- Confusing BCE and CE — remember that BCE counts backward from year 1.
- Believing that all old sources are reliable — sources must be cross-checked.
- Thinking that history is fixed — new discoveries can change our understanding.
AP Specific Context
Andhra Pradesh is very rich in historical sources:
- Amaravati — Ancient Buddhist site with inscriptions dating to 3rd century BCE
- Bhattiprolu — Contains a relic casket with inscriptions in Brahmi script
- Nagarjunakonda — These valley excavation revealed a whole city
- Ghantasala — Ancient Buddhist port town with remains of a stupa
- Undavalli Caves — Rock-cut caves from the 4th-5th centuries CE
Quick Self-Test
- What is the difference between a manuscript and an inscription?
- Why is the river Indus important in Indian history?
- What does BCE stand for, and how is it counted?
- What is the work of an archaeologist?
- Name three sources that historians use to study the past.
- What was India called in ancient times?
- Give one example of an archaeological source found in Andhra Pradesh.
- What is the problem with palm-leaf manuscripts?
- How do we calculate which century a given year belongs to?
- Why do historians need to cross-check their sources?
Exam Focus (5 Marks)
- Explain the different sources of history with examples.
- Describe the work of an archaeologist and a historian.
- What are the different names of India and where do they come from?
