Vital Villages, Thriving Towns

Introduction

After the Mauryan Empire declined, India saw the rise of many small kingdoms and a flourishing economy. Villages produced food, towns became centres of trade and crafts, and merchants travelled along busy trade routes. This chapter explores how villages and towns were connected and how they supported each other.

Iron Tools and Agriculture

The use of iron became widespread after 1000 BCE. This changed farming completely.

The Iron Ploughshare

The most important iron tool was the ploughshare — the iron tip of the plough. Earlier ploughs were made of wood and could not break hard soil. The iron ploughshare was:

• Stronger and sharper
• Could plough hard, clayey soil
• Could dig deeper into the earth
• Allowed farmers to grow more crops

The iron ploughshare was as important for farming as the smartphone is for communication today. It completely changed how things were done.

Other Iron Tools

Impact of Iron on Agriculture

1. More land under cultivation — Forests were cleared with iron axes.
2. Higher production — The iron ploughshare allowed deeper ploughing.
3. Multiple crops — Farmers could grow two crops a year (double cropping).
4. Surplus food — More food meant more people could do non-farming jobs.
5. Population growth — With more food, the population increased.

Irrigation

To grow more crops, farmers needed water. Different methods of irrigation were used:

• Wells — Dug wells and stepwells
• Tanks — Artificial ponds and reservoirs
• Canals — Channels to bring water from rivers
• Lifting devices — Like the shaduf (a pole and bucket system) and the waterwheel (norai)

In Andhra Pradesh, the Godavari and Krishna deltas have rich alluvial soil that is excellent for farming. Ancient farmers used bunds and canals to control water from these rivers.

The Growth of Villages

Most people lived in villages. Villages were of two types:

1. Ordinary villages — Where farmers, craftspeople, and labourers lived
2. Revenue villages — Larger settlements with officials, markets, and richer landowners

Village Life

• Most villagers were farmers (peasants).
• Some were landless labourers who worked on others' fields.
• Craftspeople (potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, weavers) lived alongside farmers.
• The village headman (grama bhojaka) managed village affairs.
• The village accountant kept land records.
• Villages had common land for grazing cattle.
• Villagers helped each other during sowing and harvest seasons.

The grama bhojaka was a powerful person in the village. He collected taxes for the king, settled disputes, and maintained law and order. The position was often hereditary.

The Rise of Towns

From around 600 BCE, towns began to grow. These towns were centres of:

• Trade and commerce
• Craft production
• Administration
• Religion and learning

Types of Towns

Pataliputra: The Great Capital

Pataliputra (modern Patna) was one of the largest cities of the ancient world:

• Capital of the Mauryan Empire
• Located at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers
• Surrounded by massive wooden walls
• Had a council hall, palaces, and public buildings
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador, described it as a magnificent city

Mathura: A Thriving City

Mathura was an important city for several reasons:

• Located at the crossroads of major trade routes
• Important religious centre (Krishna's birthplace)
• Centre of art and sculpture (Mathura School of Art)
• Centre of Buddhist and Jain learning
• Known for fine textiles and sculptures
• Ruled by the Kushanas and later the Guptas

Mathura was also called 'Surya's city' and was famous for its beautiful sculptures made of red sandstone.

Arikamedu: An Ancient Port

Arikamedu, near Puducherry in Tamil Nadu, was an important port:

• Connected India with the Roman Empire
• Trade goods: Indian spices, textiles, pearls, precious stones (exported); Roman wine, glass, gold coins (imported)
• Archaeologists found Roman pottery (Arretine ware), glassware, and amphorae (wine jars)
• Bead-making was an important industry
• The port declined after the 2nd century CE

Coins

Early Coins

The earliest coins of India were punch-marked coins made of silver and copper:

• Period: 6th century BCE onwards
• Making: Small pieces of metal were cut and stamped with symbols using a punch
• Symbols: Animals, trees, mountains, sun, and geometric patterns
• Value: Determined by weight and metal content

Later Coins

After punch-marked coins, various dynasties issued their own coins:

• Kushana coins — Gold coins with images of kings and gods
• Satavahana coins — Lead and copper coins with ship motifs (showing maritime trade)
• Gupta coins — Gold coins depicting kings and goddess Lakshmi
• Roman coins — Found in many sites in South India, showing trade with Rome

Satavahana coins with ship motifs have been found in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that the Satavahanas were active in sea trade.

Trade Routes

Land Routes

Two major land routes connected different parts of India:

1. Uttarapatha (Northern Route) — From Taxila in the northwest to Pataliputra and Tamralipti in the east
2. Dakshinapatha (Southern Route) — From Pataliputra to Pratishthana (Paithan) in the Deccan

Sea Routes

• India had active sea trade with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and China
• Major ports: Bharuch (Gujarat), Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu), Tamralipti (Bengal), Ghantasala (Andhra Pradesh)
• The monsoon winds were used for sailing — the Hippalus wind helped ships cross the Indian Ocean

Goods Traded

Shrenis (Guilds)

Shrenis were associations of craftspeople and merchants. They were like modern trade unions or trade associations.

Functions of Shrenis

1. Regulating production — Setting quality standards
2. Setting prices — Deciding how much goods should cost
3. Training — Teaching new craftspeople (apprenticeship)
4. Banking — Accepting deposits and lending money
5. Charity — Building rest houses, temples, and water tanks
6. Settling disputes — Among members
7. Collective bargaining — Negotiating with rulers

The shreni system was very organised. Even today, we have similar systems — like the diamond merchants' association in Surat or the textile manufacturers' association in Mumbai.

Types of Crafts

Craft Production

Crafts in ancient India were highly developed:

• Textiles: Fine cotton (Muslin from Bengal was famous) and silk
• Metalwork: Copper, bronze, gold, silver, and iron objects
• Pottery: Painted Grey Ware (PGW), Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) — very fine pottery
• Beads: Carnelian, agate, crystal, gold beads
• Ivory: Carved ivory objects
• Wood: Fine woodcarving

AP Context: Crafts and Trade in Ancient Andhra

• Ghantasala (Krishna district) was an important port town of the Satavahana period.
• Amaravati was famous for its sculpture (the Amaravati School of Art).
• Dhulikatta (Karimnagar) was a major trade centre with a large brick fort.
• Kotilingala (Karimnagar) was a mint town where coins were made.
• The Godavari and Krishna river valleys were rich agricultural regions that supported towns and trade.

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Thinking all towns were the same — towns had different functions (ports, craft centres, capitals).
• Believing only kings issued coins — merchants and guilds also issued coins.
• Confusing punch-marked coins with later coins — punch-marked coins had no writing.
• Thinking trade was only by land — sea trade was equally important.
• Believing iron tools were used everywhere at the same time — their use spread gradually.

Quick Self-Test

1. How did iron tools change agriculture?
2. What was the role of the grama bhojaka?
3. Why was Mathura an important city?
4. Where is Arikamedu located and why was it important?
5. What are punch-marked coins?
6. Name two major trade routes of ancient India.
7. What is a shreni?
8. What goods did India export to the Roman Empire?
9. Name an important port in ancient Andhra Pradesh.
10. What is Northern Black Polished Ware?

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Explain the impact of iron tools on agriculture and village life.
• Describe the growth of towns and trade in ancient India.
• What were shrenis and what functions did they perform?