New Empires and Kingdoms

Introduction

After the Mauryan Empire declined, India was ruled by many smaller kingdoms for several centuries. But around the 4th century CE, a new empire rose in the north — the Gupta Empire. The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of India because of its achievements in art, literature, science, and mathematics.

In the south, powerful dynasties like the Pallavas and Chalukyas emerged. In Andhra, the Ikshvakus and Vishnukundinas ruled. This chapter tells the story of these empires and kingdoms.

The Gupta Empire

Who Were the Guptas?

The Guptas were a dynasty that ruled from Magadha (Bihar). Their rule is considered the golden age of classical India.

Important Gupta Rulers

Samudragupta

Samudragupta was the greatest military conqueror of the Gupta dynasty. Most of what we know about him comes from the Allahabad Pillar Inscription written by his court poet Harisena.

His conquests included:

• Northern India — Defeated nine kings of the Ganga valley
• Forest kingdoms — Brought forest tribes under his control
• Southern India — Captured twelve kings in the Deccan and South India (including those in present-day Andhra)
• Border kingdoms — Neighbouring kingdoms accepted his suzerainty
• Foreign relations — Even the Kushana and Shak kings paid him tribute

The Allahabad Pillar inscription describes Samudragupta as 'a god dwelling on earth' and says he was a great poet and musician. Coins show him playing the veena.

Prashastis

Prashastis (meaning 'praise') were inscriptions written in praise of kings. The Allahabad Pillar inscription by Harisena is the most famous prashasti.

Features of a prashasti:

1. Written in praise of a king
2. Often written in verse (poetry)
3. Used flowery language and exaggeration
4. Listed the king's achievements and conquests
5. Compared the king to gods and heroes
6. Sometimes included genealogies (family history)

Prashastis are not completely reliable as historical sources because they exaggerate the king's achievements. But they still give us valuable information.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)

• Called 'Vikramaditya' (Sun of Valour)
• His court was adorned by the Navaratnas (Nine Gems) — nine great scholars and artists
• Defeated the Saka Kshatrapas of western India
• Made Ujjain a second capital
• Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian visited India during his reign
• Trade and arts flourished

The Nine Gems (Navaratnas) of Chandragupta II's court:

1. Kalidasa — Greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist (wrote Shakuntala, Meghaduta, Kumarasambhava)
2. Aryabhata — Great mathematician and astronomer
3. Varahamihira — Astronomer and astrologer
4. Vishakhadatta — Playwright (wrote Mudrarakshasa)
5. Dhanvantari — Famous physician
6. Amarsimha — Lexicographer (wrote Amarakosha)
7. Shanku — Architect
8. Kshapanaka — Astrologer
9. Vetalabhatta — Magician

Harshavardhana (606-647 CE)

After the Gupta Empire declined, Harshavardhana of Kannauj built a large kingdom in northern India.

Harsha's Rule

• Capital: Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh)
• Extent: From Punjab to Bengal, from the Himalayas to the Narmada
• Religion: Converted to Buddhism later in life
• Patron of learning: Supported Nalanda University; the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited his court
• Writings: Harsha himself wrote three plays (Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika)
• Bana: His court poet wrote Harshacharita (biography of Harsha)
• Reign: 41 years of relatively peaceful and prosperous rule
• Death: He died around 647 CE without an heir, and his kingdom broke up

The Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang describes Harsha as a just and generous ruler who distributed all his wealth to the poor at a grand assembly in Prayaga (Allahabad).

The Pallavas and Chalukyas

The Pallavas (300-888 CE)

• Capital: Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu)
• Important rulers: Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla)
• Architecture: Rock-cut temples (Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram); the Shore Temple
• Literature: Tamil literature flourished
• Wars: Fought frequently with the Chalukyas of Badami
• Chinese connection: Sent embassies to China

The Chalukyas of Badami (543-753 CE)

• Capital: Badami (Vatapi) in Karnataka
• First ruler: Pulakeshin I
• Greatest ruler: Pulakeshin II (defeated Harsha's army on the Narmada river)
• Architecture: Cave temples at Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal
• Aihole: Called the 'cradle of Indian architecture' with over 125 temples

The Chalukya temples at Pattadakal are UNESCO World Heritage sites. They show a beautiful blend of North Indian (Nagara) and South Indian (Dravida) architectural styles.

Differences Between Pallavas and Chalukyas

AP Context: Kingdoms in Andhra

The Ikshvakus (3rd-4th Centuries CE)

• Capital: Nagarjunakonda (Guntur district)
• Period: Around 220-300 CE (after the Satavahanas)
• Important rulers: Santamula I and II
• Features:
  • Patrons of Buddhism — built many monasteries and stupas at Nagarjunakonda
  • Also performed Vedic sacrifices (showing religious tolerance)
  • Women played important roles — the Ikshvaku queens made many donations to Buddhist monasteries
  • Trade with the Roman Empire continued
  • The site at Nagarjunakonda contains inscriptions that provide detailed information about the kingdom

The Vishnukundinas (5th-7th Centuries CE)

• Capital: Initially Indrapalanagara (near Nalgonda), later Vengi (near Eluru)
• Period: Around 420-620 CE
• Features:
  • Ruled over coastal Andhra and parts of Telangana
  • Promoted Hinduism (especially Vishnu worship)
  • Performed ashvamedha (horse sacrifice)
  • Built many temples
  • Fought wars with the Pallavas and the Chalukyas

Early Andhra Kingdoms

The Andhra region was ruled by several other dynasties:

• Satavahanas (230 BCE-220 CE) — The first great Andhra kingdom; ruled from Pratishthana; built the Amaravati Stupa
• Ananda Gotrikas — Ruled in the Guntur region after the Ikshvakus
• Salankayanas — Ruled in the Vengi region (3rd-5th centuries CE)
• Eastern Chalukyas — Ruled from Vengi (7th-12th centuries CE)

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Thinking the Gupta period was the only golden age — there were other periods of cultural achievement too.
• Confusing Samudragupta with Chandragupta II — Samudragupta was the conqueror; Chandragupta II was the patron of arts.
• Believing prashastis are completely factual — they exaggerate.
• Thinking Harsha was a Gupta ruler — he was from the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
• Missing the distinction between Pallavas and Chalukyas.

Quick Self-Test

1. Who was the founder of the Gupta dynasty?
2. What is the Allahabad Pillar inscription and why is it important?
3. What is a prashasti?
4. Who were the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II's court?
5. Name two great scholars in the Gupta court.
6. Who was Harshavardhana?
7. Where did the Pallavas and Chalukyas rule?
8. What is special about Nagarjunakonda?
9. Who were the Ikshvakus?
10. Name three early Andhra kingdoms.

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Describe the achievements of the Gupta Empire.
• Explain the importance of prashastis as historical sources.
• Describe the contribution of the Pallavas and Chalukyas to art and architecture.
• Discuss the history of early Andhra kingdoms (Ikshvakus, Vishnukundinas).