Buildings, Paintings and Books

Introduction

Ancient India produced some of the most beautiful buildings, paintings, and books in world history. Stupas, temples, cave paintings, and literary works from this period continue to inspire us today. This chapter explores the artistic and literary achievements of ancient India, with special attention to the rich heritage of Andhra Pradesh.

Stupas

A stupa is a mound-like Buddhist structure that contains relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints.

Parts of a Stupa

How Stupas Were Built

1. A brick or stone structure was built in the shape of a hemisphere.
2. Relics (bodily remains or objects used by the Buddha) were placed inside.
3. The stupa was covered with plaster and carved panels.
4. A stone umbrella (chhatri) was placed on top.
5. Gateways (toranas) were added at the four cardinal directions.
6. A railing (vedika) surrounded the stupa.

The faithful would walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction (pradakshina) as a form of worship.

Famous Stupas

Amaravati Stupa (AP)

The Amaravati Stupa in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, is one of the most important Buddhist monuments in India:

• Built: 3rd century BCE (Mauryan period), expanded later
• Size: Originally about 50 metres in diameter
• Material: White marble with exquisite carvings
• Features:
  • Beautiful sculptured panels showing scenes from the Buddha's life
  • Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous births) carved in stone
  • Lotus motifs, animal figures, and human figures
  • Considered the finest example of the Amaravati School of Art
• Current status: The stupa is in ruins, but many sculptures are preserved in museums (Chennai Museum, British Museum)

The Amaravati Stupa was described by the 19th-century archaeologist Robert Sewell as 'the most magnificent monument in India'. Its carvings are among the finest examples of Indian stone sculpture.

Temples

Early Temples

The earliest temples in India were rock-cut (carved out of solid rock). Later, free-standing temples were built.

Parts of a Temple

Development of Temple Architecture

1. Gupta period (4th-6th centuries CE) — Simple flat-roofed temples; e.g., Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh
2. Pallava period (7th-8th centuries) — Rock-cut rathas and monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram; the Shore Temple
3. Chola period (9th-12th centuries) — Large and elaborate temples; Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur
4. Chandela period (10th-11th centuries) — Khajuraho temples with beautiful sculptures

Mahabalipuram Temples

The Pallava kings built magnificent rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram):

• Pancha Rathas — Five monolithic chariot-shaped temples
• Descent of the Ganges — A huge open-air bas-relief (rock carving)
• Shore Temple — A beautiful structural temple by the sea
• Varaha Cave Temple — Rock-cut cave with carvings

Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The 'Descent of the Ganges' is the largest bas-relief in the world, carved on two huge boulders.

Undavalli Caves (AP)

The Undavalli Caves in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, are:

• Rock-cut caves from the 4th-5th centuries CE
• Associated with the Vishnukundina dynasty
• Four storeys carved out of solid sandstone
• A massive recline of Lord Vishnu (Anantasayana) carved in the cave
• Originally Buddhist caves, later converted to Hindu temples

Undavalli Caves are a fine example of rock-cut architecture in Andhra Pradesh. The caves show how Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted in ancient Andhra.

Paintings

Ajanta Caves

The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra contain the finest surviving paintings of ancient India:

• Period: 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE
• Total caves: 30 caves (some unfinished)
• Paintings: Found in caves 1, 2, 16, and 17
• Technique: Fresco secco (dry fresco) — paintings done on dry plaster
• Subjects:
  • Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous births)
  • Scenes from the Buddha's life
  • Bodhisattvas (compassionate beings)
  • Everyday life scenes — kings, queens, dancers, musicians, farmers
  • Animals, birds, and plants

Features of Ajanta Paintings

• Natural colours made from minerals and plants
• Beautiful expressions on faces
• Elegant body postures
• Rich details of clothing and ornaments
• Perspective and depth shown effectively
• Overlapping figures to suggest crowds

The Ajanta paintings are the 'gallery of Indian art'. They give us a glimpse of what life was like in ancient India.

Other Painting Sites

• Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh) — Similar to Ajanta, but fewer surviving paintings
• Sittannavasal (Tamil Nadu) — Jain cave paintings
• Sigiriya (Sri Lanka) — Frescoes showing royal women

Books (Literature)

Sangam Literature

Sangam literature is a collection of Tamil poems composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE:

• Three Sangams (literary academies) were held in Madurai
• Main texts: Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies), Pattupattu (Ten Idylls)
• Subjects: Love (akam) and war (puram)
• Famous work: Silappadikaram (The Story of the Anklet) by Ilango Adigal — a epic about a merchant named Kovalan and his wife Kannagi
• Another epic: Manimekalai by Sattanar — the story of Kovalan and Kannagi's daughter

Silappadikaram is one of the greatest Tamil epics. The story of Kannagi's revenge and her journey to become a goddess is still performed in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Kalidasa's Works

Kalidasa is considered the greatest poet and dramatist of Sanskrit literature. He lived during the Gupta period (around 400 CE).

His major works:

Kalidasa's Abhijnana Shakuntalam is one of the most famous plays in world literature. It has been translated into many languages and inspired works by Goethe.

Other Important Works

Aryabhata and Science

Aryabhata (476-550 CE) was the greatest mathematician and astronomer of ancient India.

Contributions of Aryabhata

Mathematics:

• Invented the concept of zero (though the symbol was developed later)
• Explained the decimal system
• Calculated the value of pi (π) as 3.1416
• Solved quadratic equations
• Laid the foundations of algebra

Astronomy:

• Earth rotates on its axis (he was the first to say this!)
• The moon shines by reflecting sunlight
• Correctly explained solar and lunar eclipses
• Calculated the length of a year as 365.358 days
• He wrote Aryabhatiya — a book on mathematics and astronomy

Aryabhata was centuries ahead of European astronomers. He said the earth rotates on its axis around 1,000 years before Copernicus!

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Thinking all stupas are identical — each has its own unique features.
• Confusing Ajanta (paintings) with Ellora (caves with sculptures).
• Believing Kalidasa wrote only plays — he also wrote epic and lyric poems.
• Thinking Sangam literature is in Sanskrit — it is in Tamil.
• Forgetting that zero was discovered in India — the symbol '0' was first used here.

Quick Self-Test

1. What is a stupa? Name its parts.
2. Why is the Amaravati Stupa important?
3. What are the parts of a temple?
4. Where are the Undavalli Caves located?
5. What is special about the Ajanta paintings?
6. What is Sangam literature?
7. Name two works of Kalidasa.
8. What did Aryabhata discover?
9. What is the Silappadikaram?
10. Name a UNESCO World Heritage site related to ancient Indian architecture.

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Describe the features of a stupa with examples.
• Explain the importance of the Ajanta caves for Indian art.
• Discuss the contributions of Kalidasa and Aryabhata.
• Describe the architectural heritage of Andhra Pradesh (Amaravati Stupa, Undavalli Caves, Nagarjunakonda).