Early Tamil Society and Culture — Class 9 Social Science (Samacheer Kalvi)

TN State Board (Samacheer Kalvi) Class 9 Social Science, History — Chapter 3. The Sangam Age — Tamil kingdoms, trade, society & culture in ancient Tamilagam.

1. About this lesson

This chapter explores ancient Tamil society and culture during the Sangam Age (circa 3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE). You will learn about the sources (archaeology, inscriptions, Tamil-Brahmi, Sangam literature, foreign accounts), the three Tamil kingdoms (Chera, Chola, Pandya), the Thinai concept, and the thriving Indo-Roman trade.

2. Sources for studying early Tamil society

Archaeological Sources

• Archaeological Excavation: Systematically digging a site to recover material evidence for exploring societies of the past.
• Evidence of iron smelting found at Kodumanal and Guttur.
• Adichanallur — important Iron Age/Megalithic burial site in Thoothukudi district.
• Arikkamedu — a Sangam Age port near Puducherry with evidence of Indo-Roman trade.

Epigraphy (Study of Inscriptions)

• Inscriptions: Documents scripted on stones, copper plates, coins, and rings.
• Tamil-Brahmi — the script used in the Sangam Age.
• Pugalur inscription — mentions the Cheras.
• Maangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions — mention King Nedunchezhian (NOT Karikalan).
• Pulimankombai, Madurai — other important inscription sites.
• Terms in Tamil-Brahmi: Vanikan (trader) and Nigama (guild).

Numismatics (Coins)

• Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins used in India — mostly made of silver (NOT gold).
• Coins as a medium of exchange were introduced for the first time in the Sangam Age.
• The Chola Emblem was the tiger, and they issued square copper coins with images of a tiger.

Sangam Literature

• The concept of Thinai (eco-zone classification) is presented in the Tamil grammar work Tholkappiyam (NOT Pathupaattu).
• Pathitrupathu speaks about the Chera kings (NOT Pandya).
• Akananuru and Purananuru describe various aspects of life.
• The Pattinappalai describes the trading activities at Kaveripoompattinam (NOT Akananuru).

Foreign Accounts

• Mahavamsa — a Sri Lankan chronicle in Pali mentioning merchants and horse traders from Tamil Nadu.
• Arthasastra — the classic work on economy and statecraft authored by Kautilya (Chanakya) during the Mauryan period.
• Periplus of the Erythraean Sea — mentions trade with India.
• Pliny the Elder — mentions the pepper trade with India (NOT Periplus).
• Vienna Papyrus — a Roman document mentioning trade related to Muziri (Muziris).
• Marco Polo — the famous Venetian traveller who described Kayal as a great and noble city.

3. The Three Tamil Kingdoms

Important correction: The Cholas ruled the Kaveri delta with capital at Uraiyur (NOT the Cheras). The Cheras ruled the Kongu region with capital at Vanji/Karur.

Notable Rulers

• Karikalan — the notable Chola king credited with bringing forest lands under the plough and developing irrigational facilities (Kallanai dam).
• Nedunchezhian — a prominent Pandya king.

4. The Thinai Concept (Five Eco-Zones)

The concept of Thinai (poetic theme/eco-zone classification) is presented in Tholkappiyam — it classifies Tamilagam into five physiographical regions:

Common mistake: Neythal is a coastal region, NOT a sandy desert. Palai is the desert/dry region.

5. Trade and Economy

Internal Trade

• Vanikan = trader/merchant. Nigama = guild.
• Different types of merchants operated in the Sangam period.
• Umanars = salt merchants who travelled in bullock carts with their families (NOT Vanikars).
• Barter system was common; coins also introduced.

External Trade (Indo-Roman Trade)

• Major ports: Muziris (Muziri), Kaveripoompattinam (Puhar), Arikkamedu, Kayal.
• Yavanar — term referring to Westerners, including Greeks, Romans, and West Asian people.
• Pepper, spices, pearls, ivory, textiles — major exports.
• Gold and silver coins (Roman denarii) — major imports.
• Roman pottery (Arretine ware, Rouletted ware) found at Arikkamedu.

6. Society and Culture

• Prakrit was the language used by common people in Northern India during the Mauryan period.
• The Sangam Age has its roots in the Iron Age (NOT Bronze Age).
• Pastoralism — nomadic people earning livelihood by rearing cattle.
• Chronicle = a narrative text presenting important historical events.
• Epigraphy = the study of inscriptions.
• Cameo = an ornament made in a precious stone.

7. Worked examples

Example 1. What script was used in the Sangam Age? Tamil-Brahmi.

Example 2. Which Sri Lankan chronicle mentions traders from Tamil Nadu? Mahavamsa, composed in the Pali language.

Example 3. Who described Kayal as a great and noble city? Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller.

Example 4. Which Chola king brought forest lands under the plough? Karikalan.

Example 5. What are Yavanar? Westerners including Greeks, Romans, and West Asian people.

8. Book-back questions (Samacheer Kalvi)

I. Choose the correct answer

1. The name of the script used in the Sangam Age — (a) English / (b) Devanagari / (c) Tamil-Brahmi / (d) Granta. Ans: (c) Tamil-Brahmi.

2. The Sri Lankan chronicle in Pali mentioning merchants and horse traders from Tamil Nadu — (a) Deepavamsa / (b) Arthasastra / (c) Mahavamsa / (d) Indica. Ans: (c) Mahavamsa.

3. The notable Chola king credited with bringing forest lands under the plough — (a) Karikalan / (b) Rajarajan I / (c) Kulothungan / (d) Rajendran I. Ans: (a) Karikalan.

4. The inscription that mentions the Cheras — (a) Pugalur / (b) Girnar / (c) Pulimankombai / (d) Madurai. Ans: (a) Pugalur.

5. The Venetian traveller who described Kayal as a great and noble city — (a) Vasco da Gama / (b) Alberuni / (c) Marco Polo / (d) Megasthenes. Ans: (c) Marco Polo.

6. (i) Coins introduced for the first time in Sangam Age. (ii) Prakrit was the common language in Northern India during Mauryan period. (iii) Vienna Papyrus mentions Muziri trade. (iv) Thinai concept is in Pathupaattu. — (a) (i) correct / (b) (ii) correct / (c) (i) and (ii) are correct / (d) (iii) and (iv) correct. Ans: (c). (iii-correct; iv-wrong: Thinai is in Tholkappiyam, not Pathupaattu.)

7. (i) Pathitrupathu speaks about Pandya kings. (ii) Akananuru describes Kaveripoompattinam trade. (iii) Chola emblem was the tiger, square copper coins. (iv) Neythal is a sandy desert. — (a) (i) correct / (b) (ii) and (iii) correct / (c) (iii) is correct / (d) (iv) correct. Ans: (c). (i-wrong: Pathitrupathu is about Cheras; ii-wrong: Pattinappalai describes Kaveripoompattinam; iv-wrong: Neythal = coastal, Palai = desert.)

II. Fill in the blanks

8. Inscriptions are documents scripted on stones, copper plates, coins, and rings.
9. Archaeological Excavation refers to systematically digging a site to recover material evidence.
10. Arthasastra — the classic work of economy and statecraft authored by Kautilya.
11. Thinai is a poetic theme — a class or category referring to habitat/eco-zone.
12. Yavanar referred to Westerners including Greeks, Romans, and West Asian people.

III. Find out the correct statement

13. (a) Evidence of iron smelting at Kodumanal and Guttur → Correct. (b) Periplus mentions pepper trade with India → Wrong. Pliny mentions pepper trade. (c) Punch-marked coins are earliest coins, mostly gold → Wrong. Made of silver. (d) Sangam Age has roots in Bronze Age → Wrong. Roots in the Iron Age.

14. (a) Cheras ruled Kaveri delta, capital Uraiyur → Wrong. Cholas ruled Kaveri delta, capital Uraiyur. (b) Maangulam inscriptions mention King Karikalan → Wrong. Mentions King Nedunchezhian. (c) Vanikan (trader) and Nigama (guild) in Tamil-Brahmi → Correct. (d) Salt merchants called Vanikars → Wrong. Salt merchants = Umanars.

IV. Match the following

V. Answer briefly

15. What is Thinai?

    • Poetic theme meaning a class or category; refers to habitat/eco-zone with specific physiographical characteristics.
    • Presented in the Tamil grammar work Tholkappiyam.
    • Five types: Kurinji (hills), Mullai (forest), Marutham (agricultural), Neythal (coastal), Palai (desert).

16. Write about the three Tamil kingdoms.

    • Chera: Capital Vanji/Karur, emblem Bow. Mentioned in Pugalur inscription.
    • Chola: Capital Uraiyur, emblem Tiger. Ruled Kaveri delta. Karikalan brought lands under plough.
    • Pandya: Capital Madurai, emblem Fish. Maangulam inscriptions mention Nedunchezhian.

17. Describe Indo-Roman trade during the Sangam period.

    • Major ports: Muziris, Kaveripoompattinam, Arikkamedu, Kayal.
    • Exports: pepper, spices, pearls, ivory, textiles. Imports: gold, silver coins.
    • Yavanar = Westerners (Greeks, Romans, West Asians).
    • Vienna Papyrus mentions Muziri trade. Pliny mentions pepper trade.
    • Roman pottery (Arretine, Rouletted ware) found at Arikkamedu.

VI. Answer in detail

18. Discuss the sources for studying early Tamil society.
    • Archaeology: Excavations at Adichanallur, Kodumanal (iron smelting), Arikkamedu (Roman trade).
    • Epigraphy: Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions — Pugalur (Cheras), Maangulam (Nedunchezhian). Terms: Vanikan, Nigama.
    • Numismatics: Punch-marked silver coins; Chola square copper coins with tiger.
    • Literature: Sangam works — Tholkappiyam (Thinai), Pathitrupathu (Cheras), Pattinappalai (Puhar).
    • Foreign accounts: Mahavamsa, Arthasastra, Periplus, Pliny, Vienna Papyrus, Marco Polo.

9. Common mistakes

• Mistake: Neythal = desert region. Fix: Neythal is coastal. Palai is desert/dry region.
• Mistake: Cheras ruled Kaveri delta, capital Uraiyur. Fix: Cholas ruled the Kaveri delta, capital Uraiyur.
• Mistake: Maangulam inscriptions mention Karikalan. Fix: Maangulam inscriptions mention King Nedunchezhian (Pandya).
• Mistake: Thinai concept is in Pathupaattu. Fix: Thinai is presented in Tholkappiyam.
• Mistake: Punch-marked coins made of gold. Fix: Earliest punch-marked coins made of silver.
• Mistake: Pathitrupathu is about Pandya kings. Fix: Pathitrupathu speaks about Chera kings.
• Mistake: Salt merchants were Vanikars. Fix: Salt merchants were Umanars. Vanikan = general trader.
• Mistake: Sangam Age roots in Bronze Age. Fix: Sangam Age has roots in the Iron Age.

10. Quick revision

• History Ch 3 · Early Tamil Society and Culture — Sangam Age.
• Script: Tamil-Brahmi. Sources: archaeology, inscriptions, coins, Sangam literature, foreign accounts.
• Three kingdoms: Chera (Vanji, Bow), Chola (Uraiyur, Tiger), Pandya (Madurai, Fish).
• Thinai (Tholkappiyam): Kurinji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal (coastal), Palai (desert).
• Karikalan (Chola): forest lands → plough, irrigation. Marco Polo described Kayal.
• Trade: Muziris, Arikkamedu. Yavanar = Westerners. Pepper trade — Pliny.
• Arthasastra by Kautilya; Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Pali chronicle).
• Umanars = salt merchants; Vanikan = trader; Nigama = guild.