New Beginnings: Cities and States
Introduction
The period from roughly 600 BCE to 200 BCE was one of the most TRANSFORMATIVE in Indian history. During these four centuries, India saw the emergence of its FIRST large cities since the Indus Valley Civilisation, the rise of POWERFUL STATES (the Mahajanapadas), the founding of the FIRST pan-Indian empire (the Mauryas), and the flourishing of new religious and philosophical ideas (Jainism, Buddhism, and the early schools of Hindu philosophy).
'This was an AGE of NEW BEGINNINGS — when the foundations of classical Indian civilisation were LAID. Cities. States. Empires. And ideas that would shape India for the next two thousand years.'
The Second Urbanisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600-1900 BCE) had been India's FIRST urban age. After its decline, India became largely RURAL for over a thousand years. Then, from about 600 BCE, CITIES began to grow AGAIN — especially in the Gangetic plain. Historians call this the SECOND URBANISATION.
Why Did Cities Grow Again?
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Iron Technology | The use of IRON tools (axes, ploughshares) allowed farmers to CLEAR the dense forests of the Gangetic plain and plough the heavy alluvial soil. Agricultural SURPLUS supported growing urban populations. |
| Rice Transplantation | The technique of growing rice seedlings in nurseries and TRANSPLANTING them to flooded fields produced MUCH higher yields — supporting larger populations. |
| Trade and Commerce | The rise of TRADE — both internal (along the Ganga and its tributaries) and external — created WEALTH that accumulated in urban centres. |
| Coinage | The introduction of PUNCH-MARKED COINS (silver and copper) facilitated trade. Instead of barter, people could now buy and sell using money. |
| Political Centralisation | The rise of the MAHAJANAPADAS created administrative centres and royal courts that grew into cities. |
Key Cities of the Second Urbanisation
| City | Location | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Rajagriha (Rajgir) | Bihar | Capital of MAGADHA under Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. Surrounded by five hills. |
| Pataliputra (Patna) | Bihar | Capital of the MAURYAN EMPIRE. One of the LARGEST cities in the ancient world (population ~150,000-400,000). Described by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. |
| Kaushambi | Uttar Pradesh | Capital of the VATSA kingdom. Major trading centre. |
| Ujjain | Madhya Pradesh | Capital of AVANTI. Major centre of trade and learning. |
| Taxila (Takshashila) | Punjab (now Pakistan) | Capital of GANDHARA. A GREAT centre of learning — attracted students from across India. |
| Shravasti | Uttar Pradesh | Capital of KOSALA. Associated with the Buddha — he spent many rainy seasons here. |
| Vaishali | Bihar | Capital of the VAJJI republic. Associated with both Mahavira and the Buddha. |
The Mahajanapadas — India's First States
By the 6th century BCE, the smaller tribal units (janapadas) of the Later Vedic period had EVOLVED into larger, more organised states called MAHAJANAPADAS. Buddhist and Jain texts list SIXTEEN Mahajanapadas.
There were TWO types of Mahajanapadas:
| Type | How It Was Ruled | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Monarchies (Rajyas) | Hereditary KING with absolute power | Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti, Gandhara |
| Republics (Gana-Sanghas) | Rule by an ASSEMBLY of elders or elected chiefs. Decisions by DEBATE and VOTE. | Vajji (Licchavis), Malla, Shakya (the Buddha's own clan) |
The Rise of Magadha
Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, MAGADHA (in southern Bihar) emerged as the MOST POWERFUL. By the 4th century BCE, it had conquered or absorbed all its rivals.
Why Magadha Became Powerful:
- Fertile Land: Located in the Gangetic plain — rich alluvial soil → agricultural surplus → large armies
- Iron Mines: Nearby iron deposits (modern Jharkhand) → better weapons and tools
- Forest Resources: Timber for building and ELEPHANTS for the army
- Rivers: The Ganga and its tributaries → cheap WATER TRANSPORT for goods and troops
- Ambitious Rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and the Nandas were capable, ruthless, and expansionist
The Mauryan Empire — India's First Empire
Sources for the Mauryan Period
| Source | Author | What It Tells Us |
|---|---|---|
| Arthashastra | Chanakya (Kautilya) | Treatise on STATECRAFT, economics, and military strategy. Reveals how the Mauryan state was organised. |
| Indica | Megasthenes (Greek ambassador) | An outsider's account of Mauryan India — described Pataliputra, the king's daily life, and society. The original is LOST, but later Greek writers quoted from it. |
| Ashokan Edicts | Ashoka | Inscriptions on ROCKS and POLISHED STONE PILLARS across the empire. The MOST IMPORTANT primary source. Written in PRAKRIT using the BRAHMI script. |
| Archaeological Remains | — | The remains of Pataliputra, stupas (Sanchi), pillars, and caves. |
Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321-297 BCE) — The Founder
- Overthrew the NANDA dynasty of Magadha with the help of his adviser CHANAKYA
- Founded the Mauryan Empire
- Defeated SELEUCUS NICATOR (one of Alexander's generals) — gained territories in modern Afghanistan and Balochistan
- According to Jain tradition, he later BECAME A JAIN MONK and died at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)
Ashoka the Great (c. 268-232 BCE)
Ashoka was the GREATEST of the Mauryan emperors — and one of the most REMARKABLE kings in world history.
The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE): Ashoka attacked KALINGA (modern Odisha). The war was BRUTAL — over 100,000 people were killed and many more deported. Ashoka himself recorded the suffering in one of his edicts: "One hundred and fifty thousand people were deported. One hundred thousand were killed. Many times that number perished."
Ashoka's Transformation: The suffering he witnessed at Kalinga CHANGED Ashoka profoundly. He EMBRACED BUDDHISM and adopted a new policy: DHAMMA.
Dhamma — Ashoka's Ethical Code: Dhamma was NOT a religion. It was a CODE OF ETHICS — a set of principles that Ashoka believed ALL his subjects should follow:
- Non-violence (AHIMSA)
- Respect for parents, teachers, and elders
- TOLERANCE of all religions and sects
- Kindness to servants, slaves, and ANIMALS
- TRUTHFULNESS and moral conduct
- Welfare for ALL subjects
The Edicts of Ashoka: To spread his message, Ashoka had his teachings CARVED on rocks and POLISHED STONE PILLARS across the empire. They were written in PRAKRIT (the language of ordinary people) in the BRAHMI script — so that people could actually READ them.
The most famous is the LION CAPITAL at Sarnath — with four lions back to back. It is now the NATIONAL EMBLEM of India. The Ashoka Chakra (wheel with 24 spokes) on the Indian flag comes from the same pillar.
Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan Empire had a SOPHISTICATED and CENTRALISED administration:
| Level | Official/Body | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Emperor | King | Supreme authority. Commander of the army. |
| Council of Ministers | Mantri Parishad | Advised the king |
| Provinces | Royal Princes or Governors | Administered the provinces. Key centres: Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri. |
| Districts | District Officers | Revenue collection, justice |
| Villages | Village Headman (Gramika) | Local administration |
| Spies | Secret agents | Reported to the king on ALL matters |
Pataliputra (modern Patna) was the CAPITAL — a large, well-planned city with a wooden palace, surrounded by a massive wall with 64 gates and 570 towers (according to Megasthenes).
Economy
- AGRICULTURE was the foundation. The state promoted irrigation.
- TRADE flourished — with Sri Lanka, Myanmar, the Greek world (through Afghanistan), and Southeast Asia
- TAXES were systematically collected. The state took a share of agricultural produce (1/4 to 1/6).
- The state controlled MINES, FORESTS, and some industries.
The End of the Mauryan Empire
After Ashoka's death (232 BCE), the empire GRADUALLY DECLINED. Weak successors could not hold the vast empire together. Provinces broke away. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general, Pushyamitra Shunga, around 185 BCE.
New Religious Ideas
The 6th century BCE also saw the rise of NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS that challenged the Vedic orthodoxy:
Jainism
- Founded by MAHAVIRA (c. 540-468 BCE), a Kshatriya prince
- Core teaching: AHIMSA (non-violence) — the UTMOST principle
- No creator God. Karma determines rebirth. Liberation through right conduct.
- Five vows: non-violence, truth, non-stealing, non-possession, celibacy
Buddhism
- Founded by GAUTAMA BUDDHA (c. 563-483 BCE), a Kshatriya prince of the Shakya clan
- Core teaching: FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS — life is suffering, suffering is caused by desire, suffering can end, the Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering
- The MIDDLE PATH — avoid extremes of luxury and asceticism
- No permanent soul (anatta). No creator God.
- Spread rapidly — especially after Ashoka's patronage
Both religions:
- Taught in the LANGUAGES OF ORDINARY PEOPLE (Prakrit, Pali — not Sanskrit)
- REJECTED the caste system as the basis of spiritual worth
- REJECTED the authority of the Vedas
- Emphasised personal ETHICS over ritual
Exam Focus
| Question Type | Marks | Likely Topics |
|---|---|---|
| Short Answer | 3 | Why did Magadha become the most powerful Mahajanapada? |
| Short Answer | 3 | Describe Ashoka's Dhamma and its principles |
| Short Answer | 2 | What are the Ashokan Edicts? Why are they important? |
| Short Answer | 2 | What was the Second Urbanisation? Why did it happen? |
| MCQ | 1 | Capitals / rulers / terms / sources |
Self-Test
Q1. What was the SECOND URBANISATION? Why did cities grow again after the Indus Valley? A1. The Second Urbanisation was the RE-EMERGENCE of cities in the Gangetic plain from about 600 BCE — over a thousand years after the decline of the Indus Valley cities. CAUSES: (1) IRON tools allowed clearing of dense forests and heavy-soil ploughing → agricultural surplus. (2) RICE transplantation → higher yields. (3) Expansion of TRADE and the introduction of PUNCH-MARKED COINS. (4) Political centralisation under the Mahajanapadas → administrative centres that became cities. Key cities: Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Taxila, Shravasti, Vaishali.
Q2. Why did MAGADHA become the most powerful Mahajanapada? A2. (1) FERTILE Gangetic plain → agricultural surplus → large armies. (2) Nearby IRON MINES (Jharkhand) → better weapons and tools. (3) FORESTS → timber and WAR ELEPHANTS. (4) The GANGA and tributaries → cheap water transport. (5) AMBITIOUS RULERS — Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda — were capable and expansionist. Magadha eventually conquered all rivals and became the NUCLEUS of the Mauryan Empire.
Q3. What was ASHOKA'S DHAMMA? Why did he adopt it? A3. Dhamma was Ashoka's CODE OF ETHICS — not a religion but a way of life. PRINCIPLES: non-violence (ahimsa), respect for parents/teachers/elders, tolerance of ALL religions, kindness to servants and animals, truthfulness, welfare for all subjects. Ashoka adopted Dhamma after the KALINGA WAR (c. 261 BCE) — the massive suffering he witnessed CHANGED him. He gave up conquest by WAR and replaced it with CONQUEST BY DHAMMA — spreading ethical principles across his empire through EDICTS inscribed on rocks and pillars in Prakrit (the common people's language).
