Why did India promise a plebiscite in Kashmir but not in Hyderabad or Junagadh?

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CBSE Class 12 Political Science★ 4-6 marks · CBSE Class 12 Political Science (Politics in India Since Independence) Chapter 1

Challenges of Nation Building

August 15, 1947 — India was free. But it faced THREE monumental challenges: national UNITY, establishing DEMOCRACY, and ensuring DEVELOPMENT. The integration of 565 princely states. The trauma of Partition. The reorganisation of states on linguistic lines. CBSE Class 12 Political Science (Politics in India Since Independence).

⏱ 18 min readMedium difficulty✓ Free · NCERT-aligned

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By the end of this chapter you'll be able to…

1Identify and explain the three major challenges India faced at independence: national unity, establishing democracy, and ensuring development
2Describe Sardar Patel's achievement in integrating the princely states, with special reference to Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Jammu and Kashmir
3Explain the trauma of Partition — its human cost and its impact on the Indian state's commitment to secularism
4Trace the demand for linguistic states, the death of Potti Sriramulu, and the formation of Andhra Pradesh (1953) and the States Reorganisation Commission (1956)
5Evaluate whether the reorganisation of states on linguistic lines weakened or strengthened national unity

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Why this chapter matters

This is the OPENING chapter of India's political history and sets the context for everything that follows. CBSE examiners test: the three challenges at independence, Sardar Patel's integration of the 565 princely states (especially the three holdouts: Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir), the Partition trauma, and the States Reorganisation Commission (1956). The story of Potti Sriramulu and Andhra Pradesh (1953) is a favourite 4-mark question. The 'unity without uniformity' theme connects directly to India's federal structure.

Challenges of Nation Building

Introduction

"At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom." — Jawaharlal Nehru, August 15, 1947. But freedom brought OVERWHELMING challenges. India was a deeply DIVIDED land — Partition had carved out Pakistan, 565 PRINCELY STATES had to be integrated, and the country was desperately POOR with literacy below 18% and life expectancy of 32. This chapter examines how independent India faced THREE monumental challenges: national UNITY, establishing DEMOCRACY, and ensuring DEVELOPMENT.

1. The Three Challenges at Independence

Challenge	What It Meant
1. National Unity	India was a DIVERSE, divided land. Partition had carved out Pakistan amidst horrific violence. 565 princely states — covering 40% of India's territory — were technically INDEPENDENT. 'Would India hold together — or fragment further?'
2. Establishing Democracy	India chose UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE — a RADICAL decision. At independence, most Indians were POOR and ILLITERATE. 'Can democracy work in a country where most people can't read?' The Constitution, adopted on 26 November 1949 and coming into effect on 26 January 1950, provided the framework.
3. Development	Over 70% of Indians depended on agriculture. Colonial de-industrialisation had destroyed Indian manufacturing. Poverty was MASSIVE. India had to develop — and FAST — while remaining DEMOCRATIC. 'The world was watching. Could a poor, diverse, democratic nation survive?'

2. Integration of Princely States — Sardar Patel's Triumph

At independence, there were 565 princely states covering 40% of India's territory. They were technically INDEPENDENT — free to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent. The task of integrating them fell to Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister) and V.P. Menon (Secretary of the Ministry of States).

Approach	How It Worked
Persuasion	Patel appealed to the princes' PATRIOTISM. He warned them that the alternative was CHAOS — their people would rise against them.
Pressure	'The Iron Man of India' made it clear: the Government of India would NOT tolerate independent princely states within India's borders.
Instrument of Accession	Princes signed over DEFENCE, FOREIGN AFFAIRS, and COMMUNICATIONS to India. They retained internal autonomy — initially.

By 15 August 1947, ALL BUT THREE had acceded: Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Jammu & Kashmir.

State	Ruler	Population	How It Was Integrated
Junagadh (Gujarat)	Muslim Nawab	Hindu majority (80%)	Nawab fled to Pakistan. A PLEBISCITE overwhelmingly favoured India. Integrated February 1948.
Hyderabad	Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan	Hindu majority (85%)	The Nizam wanted independence. He built a private army (the Razakars) that terrorised the population. 'Police Action' (September 1948): the Indian Army moved in. Nizam surrendered in 5 days.
Jammu & Kashmir	Maharaja Hari Singh (Hindu)	Muslim majority (77%)	Delayed decision. Pakistani tribal invaders attacked (October 1947). Hari Singh signed the INSTRUMENT OF ACCESSION. India airlifted troops. Ceasefire. Kashmir DIVIDED. 'The Kashmir issue remains unresolved to this day.'

3. Partition — The Trauma

The Partition of India (August 1947) created two independent nations — India and Pakistan. It was the LARGEST, most VIOLENT migration in human history:

~15 million people displaced — Hindus and Sikhs moving to India, Muslims to Pakistan
~1 million killed in communal violence
Women suffered disproportionately — abduction, rape, forced conversion
Gandhi's ASSASSINATION (30 January 1948) by Nathuram Godse — a Hindu nationalist who blamed Gandhi for being 'pro-Muslim'

Impact on Indian politics: Partition proved that the anti-colonial unity of Hindus and Muslims was fragile. It made India's leaders DETERMINED that India would be SECULAR — 'a nation for ALL, not a "Hindu Pakistan."' It also left a legacy of communal suspicion and the unresolved Kashmir issue.

4. Reorganisation of States — The Linguistic Challenge

The Congress had PROMISED linguistic states during the freedom movement. After Partition, there was FEAR — would linguistic states further FRAGMENT India?

Event	Year	Significance
Potti Sriramulu's fast	1952	A Gandhian activist fasted unto death demanding a separate TELUGU state. He died after 58 days (December 1952).
Creation of Andhra Pradesh	1953	Massive protests. The government created Andhra Pradesh — India's FIRST linguistic state — by separating Telugu-speaking areas from Madras.
States Reorganisation Commission (SRC)	1956	Recommended reorganising MOST states on linguistic lines. MOST were reorganised accordingly.

Result: 'Linguistic states did NOT divide India. They STRENGTHENED it. People could now be governed in their own language. Cultural aspirations were met. Separatism DECLINED. Linguistic federalism was a risk India took — and it PAID OFF.'

5. Exam Focus

Question Type	Marks	Likely Topics
Long Answer	6	What were the major challenges of nation building after 1947?
Short Answer	4	Describe the integration of princely states — Patel's role
Short Answer	2	Why was the creation of linguistic states controversial?
Short Answer	2	Impact of Partition on Indian politics

Self-Test

Q1. Describe the integration of PRINCELY STATES. What role did Sardar Patel play? A1. At independence, 565 princely states (40% of India's territory) were technically independent. Sardar Patel, as Home Minister, led their integration through a combination of PERSUASION (appealing to patriotism, warning of chaos) and PRESSURE (no independent statelets tolerated). By 15 August 1947, all but three had signed the Instrument of Accession. The three holdouts: JUNAGADH — Nawab fled, plebiscite favoured India. HYDERABAD — 'Police Action' (September 1948), Nizam surrendered. KASHMIR — Maharaja Hari Singh acceded when Pakistani tribals invaded. Ceasefire. Kashmir divided. Issue unresolved. 'Patel's integration of the princely states was a political MASTERPIECE — achieved with remarkable speed and minimal violence.'

Q2. Why was the creation of LINGUISTIC STATES controversial? What was the outcome? A2. FEARS: After the trauma of Partition, there was concern that linguistic states would encourage SEPARATISM and further FRAGMENT India. However, the demand was strong. Potti Sriramulu fasted to death (1952) for a Telugu state → Andhra Pradesh created (1953) — India's FIRST linguistic state. States Reorganisation Commission (1956) recommended reorganising most states on linguistic lines. OUTCOME: Linguistic states STRENGTHENED India. People governed in their own language. Cultural aspirations were met. Separatism declined. 'Linguistic federalism was a risk India took — and it paid off. It proved that accommodating diversity STRENGTHENS unity, rather than weakening it.'

Key formulas & results

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The Three Challenges at Independence

CHALLENGE 1 — NATIONAL UNITY: India was not a homogeneous nation. It had 565 PRINCELY STATES (40% of the territory and 23% of the population) technically outside British India. Regions had different languages, religions, and identities. Partition had already carved out Pakistan. 'Would India hold together — or fragment further?' CHALLENGE 2 — ESTABLISHING DEMOCRACY: India chose UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE immediately at independence — a radical choice. At independence: literacy was ~16%. Most Indians were poor, rural, and had never voted. 'Can democracy function under these conditions?' The rest of the world was sceptical. India proved them wrong. CHALLENGE 3 — DEVELOPMENT: 70%+ of Indians depended on agriculture. Industry was underdeveloped (colonial de-industrialisation had drained India). Poverty, malnutrition, and disease were widespread. India had to develop rapidly — while remaining democratic.

These three challenges are often asked as 'What were the main challenges faced by India after independence?' in 3-mark questions. Each needs one explanatory sentence.

Integration of Princely States — The Three Holdouts

At independence: 565 PRINCELY STATES were technically independent — they could join India, Pakistan, or remain independent. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Deputy PM and Home Minister) and V.P. Menon (Secretary, Ministry of States) negotiated the integration of all but three by August 15, 1947. THREE HOLDOUTS: (1) JUNAGADH (Gujarat): The Nawab (Muslim ruler) of a Hindu-majority state signed the accession to Pakistan. After a plebiscite (referendum) showed overwhelming support for India, the Nawab fled, and India integrated Junagadh. (2) HYDERABAD: The Nizam (Muslim ruler) of India's largest princely state wanted INDEPENDENCE. Refused to join India. India launched 'POLICE ACTION' (Operation Polo, September 1948). The Indian army moved in within 5 days. The Nizam surrendered. Hyderabad was integrated. (3) JAMMU AND KASHMIR: Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh ruled a Muslim-majority state. He initially wanted independence. In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal irregulars (supported by the Pakistani army) who advanced rapidly. Hari Singh signed the INSTRUMENT OF ACCESSION to India. India airlifted troops. A ceasefire was called in January 1949. The ceasefire line (Line of Control) divided Kashmir — India holds 2/3, Pakistan holds 1/3.

CBSE frequently asks: 'How was Hyderabad integrated?' and 'Why is Kashmir different from other princely states?' Hyderabad = Police Action (no plebiscite because the Nizam had support and was not facing external aggression — unlike Kashmir). Kashmir = plebiscite promised by Nehru (never held) → remains contested.

Partition — Human Cost and Political Impact

PARTITION (August 1947): The British Indian Empire was divided into India and Pakistan based on religion. Bengal and Punjab were divided. HUMAN COST: ~15 MILLION PEOPLE DISPLACED (the largest forced migration in history). ~1 MILLION KILLED in communal violence — in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi. Entire communities were uprooted and murdered. POLITICAL IMPACT ON INDIA: (a) India's leaders — having witnessed the horror of communal violence — became DETERMINED that India would be SECULAR. Not a 'Hindu Pakistan.' (b) GANDHI'S ASSASSINATION (January 30, 1948): Mahatma Gandhi was shot by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist who blamed Gandhi for 'appeasing' Muslims. The supreme national tragedy — Gandhi's murder ironically galvanised support for secularism and against communal forces. (c) Partition permanently shaped India-Pakistan relations — the Kashmir issue is directly rooted in it.

The phrase 'India would not be a Hindu Pakistan' captures the secular commitment that arose from Partition's trauma. This is why the Indian Constitution explicitly enshrines secularism — not as a theoretical principle but as a political response to Partition's horrors.

Linguistic States — Potti Sriramulu and the SRC (1956)

DEMAND FOR LINGUISTIC STATES: The Congress had promised linguistic states during the freedom struggle. After independence, Nehru was RELUCTANT — fearing that linguistic states would fragment India further (on the heels of Partition). He set up the JVP Committee (Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya) to examine the issue. They recommended AGAINST reorganising states on linguistic lines. BUT: the demand from Telugu-speaking people of Madras Presidency was INTENSE. POTTI SRIRAMULU (1890–1952): A Gandhian who fasted for a Telugu state in Madras Presidency. He fasted unto DEATH — dying on December 15, 1952, after 58 days. Mass protests erupted across Andhra. Property was destroyed. Nehru was forced to act. ANDHRA PRADESH (1953): Created as India's first linguistic state — carved out of Madras Presidency. STATES REORGANISATION COMMISSION (1956): Chaired by Fazal Ali. Recommended that states be reorganised primarily on LINGUISTIC LINES. Most Indian states were reorganised accordingly. A peaceful resolution of what had seemed a major threat to unity.

KEY QUESTION: 'Did linguistic states weaken national unity?' ANSWER (CBSE standard): NO — linguistic reorganisation actually STRENGTHENED unity. It met genuine cultural aspirations within the federal framework. States could govern in their own language. Separatism DECLINED after reorganisation. The Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu, which had demanded a separate Dravida Nadu, dropped its secession demand once Tamil Nadu had its own state government.

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Common mistakes & fixes

These are the exact errors that cost students marks in board exams. Read them once, save yourself the trouble.

WATCH OUT

✗ Saying all three holdout states — Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir — were integrated in the same way

✓ Each was integrated DIFFERENTLY: Junagadh (plebiscite — people voted for India); Hyderabad ('Police Action' / Operation Polo — military force, no plebiscite); Kashmir (Instrument of Accession signed by Maharaja under duress of Pakistani tribal invasion, then ceasefire — STILL contested). The different methods matter for CBSE answers about Kashmir being unique.

WATCH OUT

✗ Saying linguistic reorganisation divided India

✓ The actual outcome was the OPPOSITE: linguistic reorganisation STRENGTHENED Indian unity. Before 1956, groups like Tamil-speaking and Telugu-speaking peoples agitated for separate states or even separate nations. After reorganisation, these movements found expression within the Indian federal system. The demand for a 'Dravida Nadu' (separate Dravidian country) dropped after Tamil Nadu was established as a separate linguistic state.

WATCH OUT

✗ Placing Gandhi's assassination on August 15, 1947 (Independence Day)

✓ Gandhi was assassinated on JANUARY 30, 1948 — almost six months AFTER independence — by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist. Gandhi had been working towards Hindu-Muslim reconciliation after Partition. His murder shocked India and strengthened the secular political consensus.

NCERT exercises (with solutions)

Every NCERT exercise from this chapter — what it covers and how many questions to expect.

NCERT Ex s

NCERT Exercises

Questions on three challenges at independence; integration of princely states (Hyderabad, Kashmir, Junagadh); Partition's impact on India; linguistic states demand; Potti Sriramulu; States Reorganisation Commission 1956; whether linguistic reorganisation weakened national unity

Questions

Practice problems

Try each one yourself before tapping "Show solution". Active recall > rereading.

Q1EASY· princely-states-integration

How was the state of Hyderabad integrated into the Indian Union?

▶ Show solution

INTEGRATION OF HYDERABAD: Hyderabad was India's largest princely state, ruled by the Nizam (Mir Osman Ali Khan). The Nizam refused to accede to India and wanted INDEPENDENCE. He maintained an irregular force (the Razakars) who carried out violence against Hindus in the state. Sardar Patel (Deputy PM and Home Minister) and the Indian government gave the Nizam time to accede — but he refused. In September 1948, India launched 'POLICE ACTION' (Operation Polo) under General J.N. Chaudhuri. The Indian Army moved into Hyderabad on September 13, 1948. Within 5 days (by September 17), the Nizam's forces surrendered. No plebiscite was held — unlike Junagadh. The speed of the operation and the Nizam's surrender made a referendum unnecessary. Hyderabad was integrated into the Indian Union. It was eventually divided into three parts: Andhra Pradesh (Telugu-speaking), Karnataka (Kannada-speaking), and Maharashtra (Marathi-speaking) during the linguistic reorganisation of 1956.

Q2MEDIUM· linguistic-states

What was the States Reorganisation Commission? What was its significance for Indian federalism?

▶ Show solution

STATES REORGANISATION COMMISSION (SRC): Set up by the Government of India in 1953, under Fazal Ali (chairman), K.M. Panikkar, and H.N. Kunzru. Its mandate: to examine the question of reorganising India's states and recommend a basis for redrawing boundaries. CONTEXT: The demand for linguistic states — states drawn along the lines of a shared language — had been growing since independence. The Congress had promised linguistic states during the freedom movement. The death of POTTI SRIRAMULU (December 1952), who fasted unto death for a Telugu state, had forced the government to create Andhra Pradesh (1953) — India's first linguistic state. This created pressure for a comprehensive solution. RECOMMENDATIONS: The SRC submitted its report in 1955, recommending that states be reorganised primarily on LINGUISTIC LINES. This was accepted with some modifications. IMPLEMENTATION (1956): The States Reorganisation Act reorganised India into 14 states and 6 Union Territories on November 1, 1956. States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh took shape in their present form. SIGNIFICANCE FOR FEDERALISM: (1) Met deep cultural aspirations — people could be governed in their own language. (2) States became more homogeneous internally, making governance more effective. (3) Defused separatist movements — the demand for a Dravidian nation dropped after Tamil Nadu was established. (4) Created a MORE AUTHENTIC FEDERALISM — states that represented real cultural and linguistic communities, not the arbitrary divisions of British India. NCERT CONCLUSION: Linguistic reorganisation STRENGTHENED national unity — contrary to the fears of those like Nehru who worried it would fragment India.

Q3HARD· challenges-overall

India's survival and unity after independence has been described as a 'miracle.' Discuss the three major challenges India faced at independence and how they were addressed.

▶ Show solution

INDIA AT INDEPENDENCE — CONTEXT: On August 15, 1947, India became independent under conditions that made its survival deeply uncertain. Winston Churchill had called India 'a geographical expression, no more a nation than the equator.' India had to prove him wrong. THREE CHALLENGES AND THEIR RESOLUTION: CHALLENGE 1 — NATIONAL UNITY: India faced centrifugal forces that could have torn it apart. (a) PRINCELY STATES: 565 princely states (40% of territory) were technically independent. Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon integrated all but three by August 15, 1947, through a combination of persuasion, negotiation, and force where necessary. Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Police Action, 1948), and Kashmir (Instrument of Accession, 1947 — still contested) were the three difficult cases. (b) LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY: Fear that linguistic states would fragment India proved unfounded — the SRC (1956) reorganised states on linguistic lines, which actually reduced regional grievances and strengthened unity. ASSESSMENT: National unity was preserved — though Kashmir remains unresolved. The Partition left a permanent wound. But the Indian state demonstrated remarkable capacity for integration. CHALLENGE 2 — ESTABLISHING DEMOCRACY: India chose UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE from the very first election (1952) — a bold decision given that most Indians were illiterate and poor. The first general election was conducted peacefully and fairly, with 173 million voters. The Congress won overwhelmingly, but the process was democratic. Over decades, India built the institutions of democracy — judiciary, free press, independent election commission — that have generally sustained competitive elections. India's democratic journey has not been without crises (the Emergency of 1975–77 was a serious test) — but democracy has survived and been restored. CHALLENGE 3 — DEVELOPMENT: India chose a 'mixed economy' — the state would lead heavy industrialisation through the Planning Commission and Five Year Plans, while the private sector operated in consumer goods and services. The result was modest but real progress: an industrial base was built, food self-sufficiency was achieved through the Green Revolution, and primary education expanded. However, growth was slow (~3.5% 'Hindu rate of growth') and poverty remained massive — a criticism that drove the 1991 economic reforms. OVERALL ASSESSMENT: India's survival as a unified, democratic, developing nation was NOT inevitable. The scale of the challenges — Partition's trauma, 565 princely states, mass illiteracy and poverty, multiple languages and religions — made it genuinely extraordinary that India held together and sustained democracy. The credit belongs to the founding leaders (Nehru, Patel, Ambedkar, Gandhi's legacy) and to India's Constitution, which provided a framework for managing diversity through institutional channels.

5-minute revision

The whole chapter, distilled. Read this the night before the exam.

•Three challenges: national unity, establishing democracy, development.
•565 princely states at independence. Patel + V.P. Menon integrated them. By August 15, 1947 all but 3 had acceded.
•Three holdouts: Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Police Action, September 1948), Kashmir (Instrument of Accession, October 1947).
•Partition: ~15 million displaced, ~1 million killed. Gandhi assassinated January 30, 1948 (Nathuram Godse).
•Partition → India chose secularism: 'India would not be a Hindu Pakistan.'
•Potti Sriramulu: fasted unto death for Telugu state. Died December 15, 1952. → Andhra Pradesh created 1953 (India's FIRST linguistic state).
•States Reorganisation Commission (1953): Fazal Ali, Panikkar, Kunzru. Report 1955. Implementation 1956.
•SRC result: 14 states + 6 Union Territories. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala formed. Linguistic reorganisation strengthened, not weakened, unity.
•JVP Committee (Nehru, Patel, Sitaramayya): recommended AGAINST linguistic states initially. Overruled by popular demand.
•Kashmir uniqueness: plebiscite promised (by Nehru to UN, 1948) but never held. Still contested. LOC divides India (south/east) from Pakistan (north/west).

CBSE marks blueprint

Where the marks come from in this chapter — so you can plan your prep.

Typical chapter weightage: 4-6 marks

Question type	Marks each	Typical count	What it tests
Short Answer	3-4	1	Three challenges; Hyderabad Police Action; Potti Sriramulu; linguistic states; Partition impact
Long Answer	5-6	0-1	Integration of princely states in detail; whether linguistic reorganisation weakened unity; three challenges overview

Prep strategy

Memorise the three holdouts: Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Police Action/Operation Polo, September 1948), Kashmir (Instrument of Accession + ongoing dispute). Know the difference in method for each.
Potti Sriramulu: Gandhian, fasted for Telugu state, died December 15, 1952. → Andhra Pradesh created 1953. SRC set up → 1956 reorganisation. This four-step sequence is a 4-mark favourite.
For 'Did linguistic states divide India?' — ALWAYS answer NO and give one reason (defused separatist movements, met cultural aspirations within federal framework).

Where this shows up in the real world

This chapter isn't just an exam topic — it lives in the world around you.

Kashmir in 2019 — Article 370 Abrogation

On August 5, 2019, the Modi government abrogated Article 370 of the Constitution, which had given Jammu and Kashmir special status since 1949. J&K was reorganised into two Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir (with a legislature) and Ladakh (without a legislature). The abrogation represented India's definitive assertion that Kashmir's integration is complete and non-negotiable — and reopened questions about the 1947 Instrument of Accession, the promised plebiscite, and the nature of federalism. It is the most consequential constitutional act related to the 'challenges of nation building' studied in this chapter.

Exam strategy

Battle-tested tips from teachers and toppers for this chapter.

For Hyderabad, always use the term 'POLICE ACTION' (also called Operation Polo). For Kashmir, use 'INSTRUMENT OF ACCESSION.' These are the exact technical terms CBSE expects.
For linguistic states, the sequence matters: Potti Sriramulu (1952) → Andhra Pradesh (1953) → SRC set up (1953) → SRC report (1955) → States Reorganisation Act (1956). A 4-mark question can ask the whole sequence.

Going beyond the textbook

For olympiad aspirants and curious learners — topics that build on this chapter.

Study V.P. Menon's 'The Story of the Integration of the Indian States' (1956) — the first-hand account of how the most complex territorial integration in history was achieved in less than a year. Menon, as the secretary to Patel, was at the centre of the negotiations with each princely state.
Compare India's linguistic states with Switzerland's CANTON SYSTEM — Switzerland has 4 official languages (German, French, Italian, Romansh) and organises its federal units to accommodate linguistic diversity. The contrast with India's experience illuminates different models of managing multilingual states.

Where else this chapter is tested

CBSE board isn't the only one — other exams test this chapter too.

CBSE Class 12 Board (Political Science)High

UPSC Prelims (Indian Polity, Modern History)High

CUET (Political Science)Medium

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Questions students ask

The real ones — pulled from the Q&A community and tutor sessions.

The three cases were different: In JUNAGADH, the Nawab had signed accession to Pakistan against the will of the Hindu-majority population. India held a plebiscite (January 1948) — the people voted overwhelmingly for India. In HYDERABAD, the Nizam rejected accession to either country. He had popular support among a section of the Muslim elite (the Razakars). India chose the Police Action — there was no plebiscite, and the question of popular will was not formally tested. In KASHMIR, Nehru had already referred the case to the UN Security Council (January 1, 1948) and promised a plebiscite to legitimise India's accession. UN Resolution 47 (1948) called for a plebiscite after Pakistan withdrew its forces. Pakistan never fully withdrew — so the plebiscite was never held. India's position evolved: by the 1950s, India argued that Pakistan's aggression had forfeited its right to the plebiscite, and that subsequent elections in J&K constituted a democratic expression of the people's will.

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