The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

"When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold." — Metternich

1. Chapter Overview

This chapter traces how the modern IDEA OF THE NATION-STATE emerged in 19th-century Europe. Before the French Revolution (1789), people identified with their REGION, KING, or RELIGION — not a 'nation'. By 1914, nationalism had reshaped the map of Europe. This chapter covers that transformation.

Key Timeline

2. Sorrieu's Vision — Imagining the Nation (1848)

Frédéric Sorrieu's Painting (1848)

French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of prints in 1848 visualising his dream of a world made up of 'democratic and social republics.'

What the painting shows:

• Long processions of people from nations across the WORLD, each carrying their national flag, marching towards the Statue of Liberty (holding a torch in one hand, the Charter of Rights in the other)
• In the foreground: France leads, followed by other European and American nations
• God, Christ, angels watch from the clouds above
• Trampled underfoot: the symbols of ABSOLUTISM (monarchy, church power)

Why It Matters:

• The painting shows Europe IMAGINING the idea of the nation-state BEFORE it existed
• Each nation has its OWN flag and distinct identity → idea of the NATION-STATE
• Sorrieu's print captures the ROMANTIC-NATIONALIST dream of 1848 — the year of revolutions
• This image is used as a SOURCE in NCERT (source-based questions)

3. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation (1789)

First Clear Expression of Nationalism

• The French Revolution (1789) was the FIRST TIME people identified as a 'NATION' rather than subjects of a king
• La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) — new concepts
• The nation was NOT the king — it was THE PEOPLE
• The Tricolour replaced the royal standard (flag)

Measures Taken by French Revolutionaries

• A centralised administrative system: uniform laws for all citizens
• Internal customs duties abolished: free trade within France
• Uniform system of weights and measures: metric system
• French language promoted: regional dialects discouraged
• Estates-General renamed National Assembly: power from king → people

Spread of Revolutionary Ideas

• French armies carried these ideas across Europe
• Students, professionals, educated middle class — became NATIONALISTS
• Jacobin clubs formed in French-controlled territories
• The Revolution was NOT just French — it was a MODEL

4. Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1815)

Napoleon's Role

• 'Destroyer' AND 'Moderniser' — a COMPLEX figure
• Conquered much of Europe — spread French revolutionary ideals

Reforms Introduced by Napoleon

• Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
  • Equality before law
  • Right to property
  • Abolished feudal system, serfdom
  • Simplified administrative divisions
  • Removed guild restrictions
• Transport and communication improved
• Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures

BUT: The Contradictions

• Napoleon's rule was IMPERIAL (he was an emperor)
• Censorship, taxation, forced conscription
• Political freedom was RESTRICTED
• The 'liberator' became an OPPRESSOR
• This created a MIXED REACTION: welcomed reforms, resented French domination

5. The Congress of Vienna (1815)

After Napoleon's Defeat

• Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria met at Vienna
• Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich
• Goal: UNDO the changes brought by Napoleon and the Revolution

Key Decisions

• Restored monarchies overthrown by Napoleon (Bourbon dynasty in France)
• Territorial redistribution: redrew borders to contain France
  • Kingdom of the Netherlands created (including Belgium)
  • Prussia strengthened on France's eastern border
  • German Confederation of 39 states (instead of old Holy Roman Empire)
  • Austria given control of northern Italy
• Created a CONSERVATIVE ORDER — designed to suppress any future revolution

The Conservative Order

• Conservatives believed: monarchy, church, social hierarchy, family, property — must be PRESERVED
• Metternich: 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold'
• Liberals and nationalists were treated as ENEMIES of the state
• Censorship, secret police, repression

6. The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)

Why Revolutions?

• The conservative order could NOT suppress the ideas of LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY
• The 1830s and 1840s saw waves of revolution across Europe

The July Revolution (France, 1830)

• Bourbon king Charles X overthrown
• Louis Philippe installed — a 'constitutional monarch'
• 'When France sneezes...' — triggered revolutions in Belgium, Poland, Italy

The Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

• Greece under OTTOMAN EMPIRE for centuries
• Greek nationalists revolted in 1821
• Gained support from WESTERN EUROPEANS:
  • Admired ANCIENT GREEK civilisation
  • Lord Byron (English poet) — fought and died for Greece
• Treaty of Constantinople (1832): Greece recognised as independent

The Romantic Imagination and Nationalism

• ART and CULTURE played a HUGE role in building nationalism
• Romantic artists, poets, musicians — glorified the nation
• Johann Gottfried Herder (German philosopher): folk songs, folk tales, folk dances = the SPIRIT OF THE NATION (Volksgeist)
• Ernst Moritz Arndt (German nationalist writer): wrote the famous poem "What is the German's Fatherland?" — asked people to identify as GERMAN rather than Bavarian, Prussian, or Westphalian. Promoted the idea of a single GERMAN NATION united by language and culture.
• Language, literature, music became NATIONALIST tools
• Example: Polish nationalist Karol Kurpinski's operas, folk dances

1848: The Year of Revolutions

• French king Louis Philippe overthrown → Second Republic declared
• Revolutions in Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary
• DEMANDS: constitutionalism, national unification, liberal freedoms
• BUT: the monarchies ultimately survived

The Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

• All-German National Assembly met at Frankfurt
• 831 elected representatives — mostly MIDDLE CLASS
• Drafted a constitution for a UNIFIED GERMANY
• Offered the crown to Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV
• He REFUSED: 'a crown from the gutter' (he wanted divine right, not people's mandate)
• Parliament DISSOLVED — unification through liberal means FAILED
• Lesson learnt: unification would need ARMIES and STATES, not parliaments

7. The Unification of Germany (1866–1871)

Before Unification

• Germany was a CONFEDERATION of 39 states
• Prussia (largest, strongest) and Austria (traditionally dominant) competed for leadership

Zollverein — The Economic Foundation (1834)

• Zollverein (German Customs Union) formed in 1834 under Prussian leadership
• Abolished customs duties (tariffs) BETWEEN the 39 German states
• Created a single unified MARKET across German territories
• Impact: German merchants and manufacturers could now trade freely → created a sense of economic unity BEFORE political unification
• Issued a COMMON CURRENCY, standardised weights and measures
• Key idea: Economic integration PRECEDED political unification — the market united Germany before Bismarck's wars did
• This is a NCERT board exam favourite: "What was the significance of Zollverein?"

Otto von Bismarck — The Architect

• Prussia's Chief Minister (later Chancellor)
• 'Blood and Iron' policy — unification through WAR, not democracy
• Not a liberal — a CONSERVATIVE who used nationalism for Prussian dominance

The Three Wars

1. Danish War (1864): Prussia + Austria defeated Denmark → gained Schleswig-Holstein
2. Austro-Prussian War (1866): Prussia defeated Austria → Austria EXCLUDED from German affairs
3. Franco-Prussian War (1870–71): Prussia defeated France → final push for unification

Proclamation of the German Empire (January 1871)

• At the Palace of Versailles (humiliating for France)
• Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed German Emperor
• Bismarck became Chancellor
• Germany unified — but through 'blood and iron', not liberal ideals
• Key features of unified Germany: powerful army, Prussian dominance, conservative

8. The Unification of Italy (1859–1871)

Before Unification

• Italy was divided into SEVEN states
• Sardinia-Piedmont (ruled by Italian king) was the ONLY Italian-ruled state
• North: under Austrian Habsburgs
• Centre: under the Pope
• South: Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Bourbon dynasty)

Key Figures

• Giuseppe Mazzini: 'The Soul' — prophet of Italian unification

  • Founded Young Italy (1831) — secret society
  • Believed in a REPUBLICAN Italy
  • Inspired generations but failed practically

• Count Camillo di Cavour: 'The Brain' — Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont

  • DIPLOMAT: allied with France against Austria
  • Used international politics to advance unification
  • Wanted a MONARCHICAL Italy under Sardinia-Piedmont

• Giuseppe Garibaldi: 'The Sword' — military leader

  • Led the 'Red Shirts' — volunteer army
  • Conquered Sicily and Naples (South Italy)
  • Handed over his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II — putting nation above personal ambition

Unification Process

1. 1859: Sardinia-Piedmont + France defeated Austria → gained Lombardy
2. 1860: Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples
3. 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed KING OF ITALY
4. 1866: Venetia added (after Austro-Prussian War)
5. 1870: Rome added (French troops withdrawn during Franco-Prussian War)

9. Britain — The Strange Case

Britain Was DIFFERENT

• No SUDDEN revolution or unification — a GRADUAL process
• Nationalism in Britain was NOT about overthrowing monarchy or creating a new state

The Making of 'Great Britain'

• 1688: English Parliament seized power from the monarchy (Glorious Revolution)
• 1707: Act of Union — England + Scotland = 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'
  • Scotland's distinct identity SUPPRESSED
  • Scottish Highlanders forbidden Gaelic language, culture
• 1801: Ireland incorporated into the UK
  • Ireland was deeply DIVIDED (Catholics vs Protestants)
  • Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen revolt (1798) — suppressed
• British nationalism: imposed through DOMINANCE of English culture, language, institutions
• A 'nation' built on suppressing OTHER nations' identities

10. Visualising the Nation — Allegories

How Was the Idea of the Nation Communicated?

• Most people were ILLITERATE in the 19th century
• VISUAL IMAGES became crucial for spreading nationalism
• ALLEGORY: an abstract idea represented as a person

Marianne (France)

• Female figure — symbol of the FRENCH REPUBLIC
• Red cap (liberty), tricolour, cockade
• Statues, coins, public squares — everywhere
• 'Marianne' = the PEOPLE, not the king

Germania (Germany)

• Female figure — symbol of the GERMAN NATION
• Crown of oak leaves (heroism)
• Sword (readiness to fight)
• Breastplate with eagle (strength)
• Black, red, gold banner (liberal-nationalist colours)

11. Nationalism and Imperialism (After 1871)

The Shift

• Before 1871: nationalism was about UNIFICATION and FREEDOM
• After 1871: nationalism became AGGRESSIVE, EXCLUSIONARY, and IMPERIALIST

Balkan Nationalism

• Ottoman Empire weakening — 'the sick man of Europe'
• Balkan peoples (Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, Albanians) demanded independence
• Each Slavic group wanted its OWN nation-state
• COMPETING CLAIMS on same territories

Great Power Rivalry

• Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Britain — each had interests in the Balkans
• Rivalry over trade, colonies, naval power
• Nationalism became a TOOL for imperial expansion
• This chain of nationalist tensions → WORLD WAR I (1914)

12. Key Concepts

Liberalism

• Freedom of the individual, equality before law, consent of the governed
• In economics: free trade, free markets, end of state restrictions

Conservatism

• Preserve traditional institutions: monarchy, church, social hierarchy
• After 1815: believed change must be GRADUAL, not revolutionary

Nation-State

• A state where the VAST MAJORITY of citizens share a common identity (language, culture, history)
• NOT the same as a kingdom or empire

Imperialism

• Extending a country's power through colonisation or military force
• Late 19th century: nationalism fuelled imperialism

13. Exam Focus

High-Weightage Topics

1. Sorrieu's 1848 painting — source-based questions on the visual and what it represents
2. French Revolution as the first expression of nationalism
3. Napoleonic Code — reforms and contradictions
4. Congress of Vienna — conservative reaction
5. Zollverein (1834) — economic foundation of German unification; common exam 3-mark question
6. Greek War of Independence — role of culture/romanticism
7. Ernst Moritz Arndt — cultural nationalist; "What is the German's Fatherland?"
8. Unification of Germany (Bismarck, 'blood and iron')
9. Unification of Italy (Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi)
10. Comparison: Germany/Italy unification vs Britain's gradual nationalism
11. Allegories (Marianne and Germania)
12. Shift from liberal nationalism → aggressive imperialist nationalism

14. Common Mistakes

1. Napoleon spread ONLY good ideas — He also imposed CENSORSHIP, TAXATION, and CONSCRIPTION. His rule was IMPERIAL.

2. The 1848 revolutions failed completely — They FAILED in immediate goals, but SUCCEEDED in spreading ideas. Serfdom was abolished. Liberals learnt that parliaments alone won't unite nations.

3. Bismarck was a German nationalist — He was a PRUSSIAN conservative first. German unification was a TOOL for Prussian power, not a liberal-nationalist dream.

4. Italy was unified by ONE leader — It took ALL three: Mazzini (inspiration), Cavour (diplomacy), Garibaldi (military).

5. All European nations unified the same way — Britain's path was ENTIRELY different (gradual, through Parliament and cultural dominance, not revolution/war).

15. Conclusion

The rise of nationalism in Europe was NOT a single story — it was MANY stories:

• FRANCE: Revolution gave birth to the 'nation' idea
• NAPOLEON: Spread it (and contradicted it)
• VIENNA: Conservatives tried to bury it
• 1830–1848: Liberals and nationalists revived it
• GERMANY & ITALY: Unified through war and statecraft
• BALKANS: Nationalism fragmented into conflict
• BY 1914: Nationalism had reshaped Europe — and was about to plunge it into WAR

For CBSE:

• Know the CHRONOLOGY — it's a story, not a list of facts
• The comparisons (Germany/Italy, Napoleon as liberator/oppressor, early/late nationalism) get marks
• Visual sources (Marianne, Germania) are common picture-based questions

Nationalism: the idea that remade Europe — for better and for worse.